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test_Biology_160_doc1_split_2
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# Features
Members of this family are characterised by the formation of dauciform (carrot-like) roots that are an alteration in root morphology that researchers regard as analogous to cluster roots in Proteaceae, which help uptake of nutrients such as phosphorus from poor soil. Like other members of the order Poales, sedges are mostly wind-pollinated, but there are exceptions. Cyperus niveus and Cyperus sphaerocephalus, both with accordingly more conspicuous flowers, are insect-pollinated.
<image 1>
Totora made artificial floating island communities of the Uru peoples in Lake Titicaca
# Evolution
Researchers have identified sedges occurring at least as early as the Eocene epoch.
# Genera
As of July 2025, 95 genera are accepted by Kew's Plants of the World Online.
- Abildgaardia Vahl
- Actinoschoenus Benth.
- Actinoscirpus (Ohwi) R.W.Haines & Lye
- Afroscirpoides García-Madr. & Muasya
- Afrotrilepis (Gilly) J.Raynal
- Ammotrypon R.L.Barrett, K.L.Wilson & J.J.Bruhl
- Amphiscirpus Oteng-Yeb.
- Anthelepis R.L.Barrett, K.L.Wilson & J.J.Bruhl
- Arthrostylis R.Br.
- Asterochaete Nees
- Becquerelia Brongn.
- Bisboeckelera Kuntze
- Blysmus Panz. ex Schult.
- x Bolboschoenoplectus Tatanov
- Bolboschoenus (Asch.) Palla
- Bulbostylis Kunth
- Calliscirpus C.N.Gilmour, J.R.Starr & Naczi
- Calyptrocarya Nees
- Capeobolus Browning
- Capitularina J.Kern
- Carex L.
- Carpha Banks & Sol. ex R.Br.
- Caustis R.Br.
- Cephalocarpus Nees (synonym Everardia Ridl.
- Chaetospora R.Br.
- Chamaedendron (Kük.) Larridon
- Chorizandra R.Br.
- Chrysitrix L.
- Cladium P.Browne
- Coleochloa Gilly
- Costularia C.B.Clarke
- Cryptangium Schrad. ex Nees
- Cyathochaeta Nees
- Cyathocoma Nees
- Cyperus L.
- Didymiandrum Gilly
- Diplacrum R.Br.
- Diplasia Pers.
- Dracoscirpoides Muuya
- Dulichium Pers.
- Eleocharis R.Br.
- Eriophorum L.
- Erioscirpus Palla
- Evandra R.Br.
- Exocarya Benth.
- Exochogyne C.B.Clarke
- Ficinia Schrad.
- Fimbristylis Vahl
- Fuirena Rottb.
- Gahnia J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.
- Gymnoschoenus Nees
- Hellmuthia Steud.
- Hypolytrum Pers.
- Isolepis R.Br.
- Khaosokia D.A.Simpson, Chayam. & J.Parn.
- Koyamaea W.W.Thomas & G.Davidse
- Krenakia S.M.Costa
- Lagenocarpus Nees
- Lepidosperma Labill.
- Lepironia Pers.
- Machaerina Vahl
- Mapania Aubl.
- Mesomelaena Nees
- Microdracoides Hua
- Morelotia Gaudich.
- Neesenbeckia Levyns
- Nelmesia Van der Veken
- Netrostylis R.L.Barrett, J.J.Bruhl & K.L.Wilson
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validation_Clinical_Medicine_23_additional
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Nephromegaly is the process whereby one or both kidneys become enlarged. It is defined as an enlargement of more than two standard deviations above the mean for age and body size of a particular individual. In adults, as the normal kidney length is typically 10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in), lengths above 13 cm (5.1 in) suggest a general enlargement.
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test_Clinical_Medicine_314_doc2_split_7
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# Pathophysiology of white matter injury of prematurity
The major reasons for the predominant involvement of cerebral white matter in preterm babies are considered to be the vulner-ability of premylinating oligodendrocytes to reactive oxygen species and cerebral anatomical constitution. Preterm newborns have impaired autoregulation of cerebral blood flow, and there are vascular end zones and border zones. Regarding the etiology of white matter injury of prematurity, accumulated evidence strongly indicates that there are two main pathways involved. One is the ischemic pathway, the other is the inflammatory pathway, and these two pathways can be synergistic. The incidence of hypoxic ischemic brain injuries is higher in fetuses exposed to maternal inflammation and infection.
# Ischemic pathway
The ischemic pathway is mainly related to excitotoxicity and oxidative stress. Excitotoxicity is due to depolarization following energy failure of the cells. Depolarization leads to excessive glutamate discharge and calcium influx into the cells, as a result of which nitric oxide synthase is activated. Cellular injury is then induced by increased nitric oxide production. Reperfusion injury following H-I cycles imposes oxidative stress on the cells. Premyelinating oligodendrocytes are more susceptible to oxidative stress than fully differentiated oligodendrocytes are because they lack antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase.
# Inflammatory pathway
A substantial role for inflammatory pathway related to infection and inflammation has been described. Several studies have shown that intra-amniotic infection and inflammation are causative factors of perinatal and long-term complications.
# Antenatal versus postnatal origin of white matter injury of prematurity
While it is generally considered that perinatal brain injury is a consequence of intrapartum or postpartum events, there is substantial evidence that a certain proportion of brain injuries has antenatal components. An examination of 58 stillborn fetuses for the presence of GMH, pontosubicular necrosis (PSN), and PVL revealed at least one lesion in 40% of cases, clearly indicating that GMH and PVL can occur in utero. The investigators have also found evidence for the prenatal occurrence of GMH in some cases by US examination and pointed out that PVL and PSN can occur in utero as well. Nakamura et al. have confirmed cystic brain lesions in two autopsy cases. One was a donor fetus in twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome, and the other was a case of
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test_Diagnostics_and_Laboratory_Medicine_62_doc1_split_6
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# Clinical Manifestations at Time of Diagnosis
As weakness progresses, the Achilles tendons become contracted, causing boys to shift the weight onto the balls of their feet, a compensatory mechanism known as toe walking. Often this is associated with exaggerated lumbar lordosis. Muscles have a firm, "rubbery" consistency and calf muscles appear larger, known as calf pseudohypertrophy. When asked to get up from a sitting position on the floor, boys will typically get into a knee-elbow position, extend their elbows and
<image 1>
knees, bring their hands and feet as close together as possible, and then raise their rears in the air and, using their arms as support, will "walk" their hands up their legs to get into a standing position; this movement is known as the Gowers' maneuver. If the diagnosis of DMD is suspected by the PCP, simple tests can be preformed during physical examination to detect proximal weakness such as asking the child to run, jump, climb stairs, and get up from the floor.
# Treatment
There is currently no cure for DMD, and the plan for disease management should be individualized. The goals of treatment for boys with DMD should be consistent with maintaining mobility, maximizing muscle strength performance and pulmonary function, and optimizing performance of activities of daily living. Treatment plans should be determined by boys' developmental and functional needs. Goals of care should be centered on a multidisciplinary approach including specialists from the following areas: clinical genetics, neurology, pulmonology, cardiology, nutrition, rehabilitation medicine, orthopedics, and neuropsychology.
# Therapies
# Physical, Occupational, Recreational, and Aqua Therapies
Because of the progressive nature of DMD, it is important for rehabilitation specialists to proactively determine ways to maximize the independence and quality of life of boys with DMD. Physical therapy aims at maintaining range of motion and preserving muscle function while minimizing muscle damage. It also plays an important role in pain management. Stretching and passive range-of-motion exercises are often recommended; however, there is little evidence to document the exact type of physiotherapy that is most advantageous. Proper selection of adaptive equipment optimizes independent function, minimizes complications such as skin breakdown and musculoskeletal pain, and improves the quality of life for boys and their caregivers.
Treatment
Therapies
- Physical
- Occupational
- Recreational
- Aqua
- Speech
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test_Diagnostics_and_Laboratory_Medicine_76_additional
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The subiculum (Latin for "support") also known as the subicular complex, or subicular cortex, is the most inferior component of the hippocampal formation. It lies between the entorhinal cortex and the CA1 hippocampal subfield.
The subicular complex comprises a set of four related structures including the prosubiculum, presubiculum, postsubiculum and parasubiculum.
The subicular complex receives input from CA1 and entorhinal cortical layer III pyramidal neurons and is the main output of the hippocampus proper. The pyramidal neurons send projections to the nucleus accumbens, septal nuclei, prefrontal cortex, lateral hypothalamus, nucleus reuniens, mammillary nuclei, entorhinal cortex and amygdala.
The pyramidal neurons in the subiculum exhibit transitions between two modes of action potential output: bursting and single spiking. The transitions between these two modes is thought to be important for routing information out of the hippocampus.
Four component areas have been described: parasubiculum (adjacent to the parahippocampal gyrus), presubiculum, postsubiculum, and prosubiculum.
Parasubiculum
The parasubiculum contains grid cells, which are neurons responsive to movements in particular directions over particular distances.
Presubiculum
The presubiculum is part of the posterior cortex corresponding to Brodmann area 27, and forms part of the cortical input to the entorhinal-hippocampal spatial/memory system.
Postsubiculum
The dorsal part of the presubiculum is more commonly known as the postsubiculum and is of interest because it contains head direction cells, which are responsive to the facing direction of the head.
Prosubiculum
Prosubiculum is a term often used in reference to monkey anatomy but rarely in rodents, referring to a region located between the CA1 region of the hippocampus and the subiculum, and distinguished by higher cell density and smaller cell sizes.
Function
It is believed to play a role in some cases of human epilepsy.
It has also been implicated in working memory and drug addiction.
It has been suggested that the dorsal subiculum is involved in spatial relations, and the ventral subiculum regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
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test_Agriculture_248_additional
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Herbicide Injury in Potato
Glyphosate <image 1>
Herbicide injury in potato can originate from herbicide residues in seed tubers, soil carryover of herbicides and exposure of the leaves to herbicides during the growth of the plant. As a result, potatoes can have poor emergence, chlorosis, necrosis, growth reduction, misshapen tubers, reduced yield and nonacceptable residues. Injury symptoms can be expresses in the foliage and/or tubers. This poster is intended to help diagnosis injury in potato.
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test_Basic_Medical_Science_35_doc1_split_2
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# Cell layers
The epithelium contains many intimate and delicate connections to neural and connective tissue. These connections allow for communication to tell the cells to expand or contract. The superficial layer of transitional epithelium is connected to the basal layer via cellular projections, such as intermediate filaments protruding from
<image 1>
Transitional epithelium
Transitional epithelium
<image 2>
Transitional epithelium of the bladder, known as urothelium. The rounded surface of the apical cells is a distinguishing characteristic of this type of epithelium.
<table><thead><tr><th></th><th>Details</th></tr><tr><th>System</th><th>Urinary system</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Identifiers</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>TH</td><td>H2.00.02.0.02033<br>Anatomical terms of microanatomy</td></tr></tbody></table>
the cellular membrane. These structural elements cause the epithelium to allow distension; however, these also cause the tissue to be relatively fragile and, therefore, difficult to study. All cells touch the basement membrane.
# Cell membrane
The urothelium is the most impermeable membrane in the mammalian body. Because of its importance in acting as an osmotic barrier between the contents of the urinary tract and the surrounding organs and tissues, transitional epithelium is relatively impermeable to water and salts. This impermeability is due to a highly keratinized cellular membrane synthesized in the Golgi apparatus. The membrane is made up of a hexagonal lattice put together in the Golgi apparatus and implanted into the surface of the cell by reverse pinocytosis, a type of exocytosis. The cells in the superficial layer of the transitional epithelium are highly differentiated, allowing for maintenance of this barrier membrane. The basal layer of the epithelium is much less differentiated; however, it does act as a
replacement source for more superficial layer. While the Golgi complex is much less prominent in the cells of the basal layer, these cells are rich in cytoplasmic proteins that bundle together to form tonofibrils. These tonofibrils converge at hemidesmosomes to attach the cells at the basement membrane.
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test_Music_105_additional
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# Why is Middle C so important?
Middle C is the starting point for many people in their musical journey on a keyboard. It is often the first note taught in school or in piano lessons and is a reference point we always come back to.
It makes sense that a C is the first note many people are taught – it is the root note (tonic) of the key of C major which has no sharps and flats in its key signature and so is an obvious starting point.
# But why this particular C?
It’s not obviously the central C note of a piano (there are 8 C’s on a piano so there can’t be a middle one!).
It’s not even the mathematical centre – there are 88 keys and so the centre lies somewhere between the E and F above it!
So what is it that makes Middle C so important?
Well, in order to understand this we need to look at where it is found on the Treble Clef and Bass Clef staves.
On the Treble Clef staff, middle C is written on a ledger line just below the bottom line of the staff:
<image 1>
On the Bass Clef staff, it is written on a ledger line above the top line of the staff:
<image 2>
Looking at these clefs it would appear that this particular C has even less claim on being in the “middle” of anything!!
It is not even located on the 5 lines of either of the staves!!
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test_History_124_additional
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Aksum flourished in sub-Saharan Africa as a counterpoint to the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. Located in modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, Aksum was able to take advantage of its location adjacent to the Red Sea, expanding across it into southern Arabia for a time. Similarities in architecture and polytheistic practices suggest that the Aksumites may have originally descended from the Sabaean people of southern Arabia. In any case, Aksumites were present in East Africa from at least the first century BCE. At its height, from the third to the sixth century CE, Aksum was a powerful economic force, trading luxury goods with Egypt, Arabia, and the eastern Mediterranean (Figure 10.15).
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Figure 10.15 Aksum occupied the region of modern Ethiopia, while Himyar was located on the other side of the Red Sea in modern-day Yemen. The locations of the two empires allowed them to dominate trade in the region. (credit: modification of work “Map of the Sassanid Empire just before the Arab conquest of Iran” by “DieBuche”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
Aksumite society was hierarchical, with the king and nobility at the top. The lower classes at the bottom worked as artisans and farmers, though little evidence of Aksumite family life has survived to confirm class distinctions. There is some evidence that owners of large wealthy estates existed. To work the land, Aksumite society relied on enslaved people, who were likely criminals or foreigners captured in war. The empire was organized around several urbanized centers with monumental architecture including grand royal palaces, as well as lower-class homes made from stone or mud with thatched roofs. A written Semitic language known as Ge’ez survives in inscriptions from this period. Prior to the arrival of Christianity, the Aksumites held polytheistic beliefs, and numerous religious sanctuaries and temples exist from this early period. A priestly class oversaw the state religion, and the king may have held a prominent role in the religious hierarchy.
King Ezana came to power in the mid-fourth century, and what we know about the Christianization of Aksum comes largely from his reign. Ezana conducted successful military engagements against the Beja and Nubian people, subduing the Kingdom of Kush that had ruled southern Egypt for at least the previous millennium. A great builder, Ezana is also likely responsible for the construction of several obelisks. Inscriptions on stelae (commemorative slabs or pillars) and obelisks erected in Aksumite cities describe his exploits and profess his faith, while coinage shows the Christian cross gradually replacing other symbols.
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test_Design_48_doc2_split_6
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# Naming and construction
The International Music Hall evolved into a theater called Radio City Music Hall. The names "Radio City" and "Radio City Music Hall" derive from one of the complex's first tenants, the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), which planned a mass media complex called Radio City on the west side of Rockefeller Center. Over time, the appellation of "Radio City" devolved from describing the entire complex to just the complex's western section. Radio City Music Hall was the only part of the complex that retained the name by 1937, and the name "Radio City" became shorthand for the theater.
Construction on Radio City Music Hall started in December 1931, and the theater topped out in August 1932. Its construction set many records at the time, including the use of 15,000 miles (24,000 km) of copper wire and 200 miles (320 km) of brass pipe. In November 1932, Russell Markert's precision dance troupe the Roxyettes (later to be known as the Rockettes) left the Roxy Theatre and announced that they would be moving to Radio City. By then, Roxy was busy adding music acts in preparation for the theater's opening at the end of the year.
<image 1>
Interior view of auditorium, looking from the stage toward the seating areas
# Opening
Radio City Music Hall opened to the public on December 27, 1932, with a lavish stage show featuring numbers including Ray Bolger, Ronnie Mansfield, Doc Rockwell, Martha Graham, The Mirthquakers, The Tuskegee Choir and Patricia Bowman. The opening was meant to be a return to high-class variety entertainment. However, Radio City's opening program flopped because the program was very long, spanning from 8 p.m. to 2 a.m. the next day, and a multitude of acts were crammed onto the world's largest stage, ensuring that individual acts were lost in the cavernous hall. As the premiere went on, audience members, including John Rockefeller Jr, waited in the lobby or simply left early. Some news reporters, tasked with writing reviews of the premiere, guessed the ending of the program because they left beforehand.
Reviews ranged from furious to commiserate. The film historian Terry Ramsaye wrote that "if the seating capacity of the Radio City Music Hall is precisely 6,200, then just exactly 6,199 persons must have been aware at the initial performance that they were eye witnesses to [...] the unveiling of the world's best 'bust'". Set designer Robert Edmond Jones resigned in disappointment, and Graham was fired. Despite the negative reviews of the performances, the theater's design was very well received. One reviewer stated: "It has been said of the new Music Hall that it needs no performers; that its beauty and comforts alone are sufficient to gratify the greediest of playgoers."
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test_Art_Theory_256_doc1_split_1
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# Sistine Chapel ceiling
The Sistine Chapel ceiling (Italian: Soffitto della Cappella Sistina), painted in fresco by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance art.
The Sistine Chapel is the large papal chapel built within the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom the chapel is named. The ceiling was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II.
The ceiling's various painted elements form part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel. Prior to Michelangelo's contribution, the walls were painted by several leading artists of the late 15th century including Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Pietro Perugino. After the ceiling was painted, Raphael created a set of large tapestries (1515–1516) to cover the lower portion of the wall. Michelangelo returned to the chapel to create The Last Judgment, a large wall fresco situated behind the altar. The chapel's decoration illustrates much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church, serving as the location for papal conclaves and many other important services.
Central to the ceiling decoration are nine scenes from the Book of Genesis, including The Creation of Adam. The complex design includes several sets of figures, some clothed and some nude, allowing Michelangelo to demonstrate his skill in depicting the human figure in a variety of poses. The ceiling was immediately well-received and imitated by other artists, continuing to the present. It has been restored several times, most recently from 1980 to 1994.
# Context and creation
The walls of the Sistine Chapel had been decorated 20 years before Michelangelo's work on the ceiling. Following this, Raphael designed a set of tapestries (1515–1516) to cover the lowest of three levels:
<image 1>
Sistine Chapel ceiling
The interior of the Sistine Chapel showing the ceiling in relation to the other frescoes. Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam is near the top of the photo.
Click on the map for a fullscreen view
Artist Michelangelo
Location Sistine Chapel, part of Vatican Museums, Vatican City
41°54'11''N 12°27'16''E
Followed by The Last Judgment
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test_Chemistry_40_doc3_split_9
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# Color of transition metal complexes
| | Fe<sup>2+</sup> | Fe<sup>3+</sup> | Co<sup>2+</sup> | Cu<sup>2+</sup> | Al<sup>3+</sup> | Cr<sup>3+</sup> |
|--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Hydrated Ion** | $\mathrm{[Fe(H_2O)_6]^{2+}}$<br>Pale green<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Fe(H_2O)_6]^{3+}}$<br>Yellow/brown<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Co(H_2O)_6]^{2+}}$<br>Pink<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Cu(H_2O)_6]^{2+}}$<br>Blue<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Al(H_2O)_6]^{3+}}$<br>Colourless<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Cr(H_2O)_6]^{3+}}$<br>Green<br>Solution |
| **(OH)**<sup>-</sup>**, dilute** | $\mathrm{[Fe(H_2O)_{4}(OH)_2]}$<br>Dark green<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Fe(H_2O)_{3}(OH)_3]}$<br>Brown<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Co(H_2O)_{4}(OH)_2]}$<br>Blue/green<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Cu(H_2O)_{4}(OH)_2]}$<br>Blue<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Al(H_2O)_{3}(OH)_3]}$<br>White<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Cr(H_2O)_{3}(OH)_3]}$<br>Green<br>Precipitate |
| **(OH)**<sup>-</sup>**, concentrated** | $\mathrm{[Fe(H_2O)_{4}(OH)_2]}$<br>Dark green<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Fe(H_2O)_{3}(OH)_3]}$<br>Brown<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Co(H_2O)_{4}(OH)_2]}$<br>Blue/green<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Cu(H_2O)_{4}(OH)_2]}$<br>Blue<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Al(OH)_{4}]^{-}}$<br>Colourless<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Cr(OH)_{6}]^{3-}}$<br>Green<br>Solution |
| **NH**<sub>3</sub>**, dilute** | $\mathrm{[Fe(NH_3)_{6}]^{2+}}$<br>Dark green<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Fe(NH_3)_{6}]^{3+}}$<br>Brown<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Co(NH_3)_{6}]^{2+}}$<br>Straw coloured<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Cu(NH_3)_{4}(H_2O)_{2}]^{2+}}$<br>Deep blue<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Al(NH_3)_{3}]^{3+}}$<br>White<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Cr(NH_3)_{6}]^{3+}}$<br>Purple<br>Solution |
| **NH**<sub>3</sub>**, concentrated** | $\mathrm{[Fe(NH_3)_{6}]^{2+}}$<br>Dark green<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Fe(NH_3)_{6}]^{3+}}$<br>Brown<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Co(NH_3)_{6}]^{2+}}$<br>Straw coloured<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Cu(NH_3)_{4}(H_2O)_{2}]^{2+}}$<br>Deep blue<br>Solution | $\mathrm{[Al(NH_3)_{3}]^{3+}}$<br>White<br>Precipitate | $\mathrm{[Cr(NH_3)_{6}]^{3+}}$<br>Purple<br>Solution |
| **(CO**<sub>3</sub>)<sup>2-</sup> | FeCO<sub>3</sub><br>Dark green<br>Precipitate | Fe<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub><br>Brown<br>Precipitate+bubbles | CoCO<sub>3</sub><br>Pink<br>Precipitate | CuCO<sub>3</sub><br>Blue/green<br>Precipitate | | |
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test_Design_95_doc5_split_4
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# From France to the United States
According to Bolger, Robert Blum (1857-1903), who had already applied Japanese motifs and subject matters into his paintings, often welcomed these three artists into his studio in New York. Blum introduced to Weir, Robinson, and Twachtman his Japanese-themed works, such as The Ameya (1893), in which he represented a local candy-maker he observed in Japan during his trip in 1890. By appreciating Blum's collection of Ukiyo-e prints as well as his Japanese paintings, Weir, Robinson, and Twachtman developed their familiarity with Japanese representations and artistic techniques. Moreover, Robinson wrote in his diary on the 30th of November in 1893 about the time when he came over to Weir's house to view his collection of Ukiyo-e prints, saying "I imagine the best men have been influenced for the better by Japanese art, not only in arrangements but in their extraordinary delicacy of tone and colour".
Figure 4: The Ameya (Blum, 1893).
# Influence of Landscape Paintings on American Artists
Weir, Robinson, and Twachtman were all inspired by the representation of Ukiyo-e prints. However, they were especially intrigued by Japanese landscape paintings. Ukiyo-e prints originally presented portraits of women, children, and actors for Kabuki (a Japanese traditional theatre) as well as their customs. The main subjects for the Ukiyo-e prints were traditionally figures from the Edo period (1603-1868), however, as the skills of Ukiyo-e masters developed, landscapes started to be represented in Ukiyo-e prints in the later Edo period.
American Impressionist artists were particularly influenced by two fundamental Ukiyo-e masters, Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Utagawa Hiroshige (1797-1858) who specialized in landscape paintings These two masters portrayed similar geographical areas such as Edo (modern-day Tokyo), but their stylistic differences were obvious at first sight. Hokusai was capable of representing mountains and water dynamically with storms, lighting, and torrential rivers to add a dramatic effect to the scenery. On the other hand, Hiroshige was talented in adding greater peace to the scene with rain, snow, moonlight, and bright stars. Unlike Hokusai's approach, Hiroshige's representation of the landscapes was rather calm and "monotonous", creating a soft atmosphere.
Figure 5: Arques-la-Bataille (Twachtman, 1885)
Figure 6: Tile Kilns and Hashiba Ferry, Sumida River (Utagawa, 1857).
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test_Design_20_additional
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Christopher Dresser (1834-1904) is considered the pioneer of industrial design. He was the first independent industrial designer, recognizing the potential of the Industrial Revolution before his German counterparts in the Modern Movement. Dresser’s groundbreaking journey to Japan, appointed by the British Government, reshaped his design approach and inspired the Anglo-Japanesque style in England. His diverse portfolio spanned furniture, textiles, ceramics, glassware, and metalwork, showcasing his versatility and forward-thinking mindset. Despite the conservative Victorian society, Dresser’s courage and vision propelled him to success, establishing him as a design icon with tastes beyond his time.
<image 1> This silver teapot was created by Christopher Dresser and crafted by Hukin & Heath in Birmingham, with its design registered on May 6, 1878, and the production took place between 1878 and 1879.
<image 2>The teapot, designed by Christopher Dresser and produced by James Dixon & Sons in Sheffield, South Yorkshire. Created around 1879, it features electroplated nickel silver and ebonized wood.
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# Exocytosis
Exocytosis is a term for the active transport process that transports large molecules from cell to the extracellular area. Hormones, proteins and neurotransmitters are examples of large molecules that can be transported out of the cell. Exocytosis is a crucial transport mechanism that enables polar molecules to flow through the cell membranes' hydrophobic lipid bilayer. The transport process is essential to hormone secretion, immune response and neurotransmission.
Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo exocytosis. Prokaryotes secrete molecules and cellular waste through translocons that are localized to the cell membrane. In addition, they secrete molecules to other cells through specialized organs. Eukaryotes rely on multiple cellular processes to perform the exocytosis process. Eukaryotes have several organelles and a nucleus in the cytoplasm that are connected through multiple transport routes, that is formally known as the secretory pathway. This is a complex pathway with multiple processes, including the exclusion of molecules to the extracellular area. This happens where secretory vesicles transport and fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell to release their contents to the extracellular area.
<image 1>
The process of regulated exocytosis. Secretory vesicles containing molecules, shown as purple orbs, being secreted, forming vesicles in the cytoplasm and moving towards the cell membrane, before the vesicle fuses with the membrane, releasing its contents into the extracellular fluids. The arrows show the secretory vesicles directional movement, as well as labelling key components, such as the cytoplasm, the cell membrane and the extracellular fluid. Made in biorender.com
# Different molecules will carry different
signal sequences. Proteins carry signal sequences at their N-Terminus, which guides them through the secretory pathway. When reaching the plasma membrane, the vesicles bind to porosomes that are embedded in the membrane. This is a process helped by SNARE proteins (Soluble NSF attachment protein receptors) in regulated exocytosis. This is one of tree processes in which exocytosis can be performed, where the two others are constitutive exocytosis and outer-membrane vesicle mediated exocytosis.
# Purposes of Exocytosis
Exocytosis plays a vital role in various biological processes:
Neurotransmitter Release – Exocytosis occurs in nerve cells to release neurotransmitters into synapses, this facilitates communication between neurons.
Hormone Secretion – Enables the endocrine system to secrete hormones, such as insulin through regulated exocytosis.
Immune Response – Exocytosis enables the immune system to release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules to decrease inflammation and combat infections.
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# White blood cell
White blood cells (scientific name leukocytes), also called immune cells or immunocytes, are cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign entities. White blood cells are generally larger than red blood cells. They include three main subtypes: granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes.
All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the anucleated red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets. The different white blood cells are usually classified by cell lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells). White blood cells are part of the body's immune system. They help the body fight infection and other diseases. Types of white blood cells are granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), and agranulocytes (monocytes, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells)). Myeloid cells (myelocytes) include neutrophils, eosinophils, mast cells, basophils, and monocytes. Monocytes are further subdivided into dendritic cells and macrophages. Monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils are phagocytic. Lymphoid cells (lymphocytes) include T cells (subdivided into helper T cells, memory T cells, cytotoxic T cells), B cells (subdivided into plasma cells and memory B cells), and natural killer cells. Historically, white blood cells were classified by their physical characteristics (granulocytes and agranulocytes), but this classification system is less frequently used now. Produced in the bone marrow, white blood cells defend the body against infections and disease. An excess of white blood cells is usually due to infection or inflammation. Less commonly, a high white blood cell count could indicate certain blood cancers or bone marrow disorders.
The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease, and thus the white blood cell count is an important subset of the complete blood count. The normal white cell count is usually between 4 billion/L and 11 billion/L. In the US, this is usually expressed as 4,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per
# White blood cell
<image 1>
White Blood Cells
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# Understanding the Autoimmune Link Behind Graves' Disease and Thyroid Eye Disease
Graves' disease and Thyroid eye disease (TED) are both associated with significant morbidity and impact on quality of life. Symptoms for both diseases can wax and wane, and sometimes prove challenging to control.
What may be less well understood or appreciated is the fact that Graves' disease and TED are related autoimmune conditions: Graves' disease primarily affects the thyroid gland, but also may present with extrathyroidal manifestations, such as TED. A deeper look at their shared pathophysiology may help explain the link between Graves' hyperthyroidism and TED, as well as illuminate considerations for future treatment approaches.
# The role of thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR)
TSHR is important for intracellular signaling. TSHR is also present throughout the body and in the eye.
In Graves' disease, pathogenic immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies bind to and activate TSHR, resulting in the stimulation of excess thyroid hormone. In TED, these autoantibodies target TSHR found in the muscle, tissue and fat around the eye. In fact, elevated TSHR autoantibody (TRAb/TSI, or thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin) levels in Graves' disease correlate with increased risk of developing TED (approximately 30–40% of Graves' disease patients develop TED) and may predict TED severity and outcomes. TED can also occur in people before thyroid-related symptoms appear.
In addition, there is emerging scientific understanding that TSHR may influence the signaling of another protein, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R), expressed on orbital fibroblasts, through synergistic receptor crosstalk, which may also play a role in TED symptoms.
TRAbs are the only specific biomarker for Graves' disease and TED, correlating to both disease severity and clinical outcomes. As a result, TRAb/TSI measurement is a sensitive and specific tool for diagnosis and ongoing management of Graves' disease, including extrathyroidal manifestations such as TED.
# Key symptoms & impact
Graves' disease
- Rapid heartbeat
- Unexplained weight loss
- Increased appetite / frequent bowel movements
- Shortness of breath
- Muscle weakness / fatigue
- Irritability / anxiety
- Heat intolerance
- Changes in menstrual cycle / reduced libido
- Goiter
- Decreased attention span
# Thyroid eve disease
- Red. irritated eyes
- Proptosis
- Chronic waterv eves
- Blurred vision or diplopia
- Difficulty or pain when moving the eyes
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Hydrocarbon Group (Alkyl Group)
A hydrocarbon group refers to the fragment remaining after removing one hydrogen atom from a hydrocarbon molecule (a compound consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms). It represents a carbon-hydrogen atomic skeleton and is conventionally denoted as R–. For example:
Methane (CH₄) loses one hydrogen atom to form the methyl group (–CH₃).
Ethane (CH₃CH₃) loses one hydrogen atom to form the ethyl group (–CH₂CH₃).
Hydrocarbon groups cannot exist as stable, independent entities; they always function as substituents within larger molecules.
Hydroxyl Group
The hydroxyl group is a functional group consisting of an oxygen atom directly bonded to a hydrogen atom (–OH). Its defining characteristics include:
High polarity due to the electronegativity difference between O and H.
Ability to form hydrogen bonds, significantly influencing molecular properties (e.g., water solubility, boiling point elevation).
Crucially, distinguish between:
The neutral hydroxyl group (–OH), covalently attached to carbon atoms in organic molecules (e.g., alcohols).
The hydroxide ion (OH⁻), a negatively charged species existing in ionic compounds (e.g., NaOH).
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# Center panel
In a cave to their lower right, a male figure points towards a reclining female who is also covered in hair. The pointing man is the only clothed figure in the panel, and as Fraenger observes, "he is clothed with emphatic austerity right up to his throat." In addition, he is one of the few human figures with dark hair. According to Fraenger:
The way this man's dark hair grows, with the sharp dip in the middle of his high forehead, as though concentrating there all the energy of the masculine M, makes his face different from all the others. His coal-black eyes are rigidly focused in a gaze that expresses compelling force. The nose is unusually long and boldly curved. The mouth is wide and sensual, but the lips are firmly shut in a straight line, the corners strongly marked and tightened into final points, and this strengthens the impression—already suggested by the eyes—of a strong
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A group of females from the center panel. The head of one female is adorned with two cherries—a symbol of pride. To her right, a male drinks lustfully from an organic vessel. Behind the group, a male carries a couple encased in a mussel shell
The pointing man has variously been described as either the patron of the work (Fraenger in 1947), as an advocate of Adam denouncing Eve (Dirk Bax in 1956), as Saint John the Baptist in his camel's skin (Isabel Mateo Goméz in 1963), or as a self-portrait. The woman below him lies within a semicylindrical transparent shield, while her mouth is sealed, devices implying that she bears a secret. To
controlling will. It is an extraordinarily fascinating face, reminding us of faces of famous men, especially of Machiavelli's; and indeed, the whole aspect of the head suggests something Mediterranean, as though this man had acquired his frank, searching, superior air at Italian academies.
<image 2>
Male figures pluck fruit from a tree. One carries a large strawberry while an owl is in the foreground
their left, a man crowned by leaves lies on top of what appears to be an actual but gigantic strawberry, and is joined by a male and female who contemplate another equally huge strawberry.
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Meso compounds are achiral compounds that has multiple chiral centers. It is superimposed on its mirror image and is optically inactive despite its stereocenters.
# Introduction
In general, a meso compound should contain two or more identical substituted stereocenters. Also, it has an internal symmetry plane that divides the compound in half. These two halves reflect each other by the internal mirror. The stereochemistry of stereocenters should "cancel out". What it means here is that when we have an internal plane that splits the compound into two symmetrical sides, the stereochemistry of both left and right side should be opposite to each other, and therefore, result in optically inactive. Cyclic compounds may also be meso.
# Identification
If A is a meso compound, it should have two or more stereocenters, an internal plane, and the stereochemistry should be R and S.
1. Look for an internal plane, or internal mirror, that lies in between the compound.
2. The stereochemistry (e.g. R or S) is very crucial in determining whether it is a meso compound or not. As mentioned above, a meso compound is optically inactive, so their stereochemistry should cancel out. For instance, R cancels S out in a meso compound with two stereocenters.
<image 1>
Tips: An interesting thing about single bonds or sp3-orbitals is that we can rotate the substituted groups that attached to a stereocenter around to recognize the internal plane. As the molecule is rotated, its stereochemistry does not change. For example:
<image 2>
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# Triad (music)
In music, a triad is a set of three notes (or "pitch classes") that can be stacked vertically in thirds. Triads are the most common chords in Western music.
When stacked in thirds, notes produce triads. The triad's members, from lowest-pitched tone to highest, are called:
<image 1>
Types of triads: $\begin{array}{lll}\text{辩} & \text{辩} & \text{辩} \\\text{辩} & \text{辩} & \text{辩}\end{array}$ |$\begin{array}{l}\text{①} \\\text{①} \\\text{①}\end{array}$, |$\begin{array}{l}\text{①} \\\text{①} \\\text{①}\end{array}$, |$\begin{array}{l}\text{①} \\\text{①} \\\text{①}\end{array}$
# - the root
Note: Inversion does not change the root. (The third or fifth can be the lowest note.)
- the third – its interval above the root being a minor third (three semitones) or a major third (four semitones)
- the fifth – its interval above the third being a minor third or a major third, hence its interval above the root being a diminished fifth (six semitones), perfect fifth (seven semitones), or augmented fifth (eight semitones). Perfect fifths are the most commonly used interval above the root in Western classical, popular and traditional music.
Some 20th-century theorists, notably Howard Hanson, Carlton Gamer, and Joseph Schillinger expand the term to refer to any combination of three different pitches, regardless of the intervals. Schillinger defined triads as "A structure in harmony of but three parts; conventionally, but not necessarily, the familiar triad of ordinary diatonic harmony." The word used by other theorists for this more general concept is "trichord". Others use the term to refer to combinations apparently stacked by other intervals, as in "quartal triad"; a combination stacked in thirds is then called a "tertiary triad".
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Mature teratomas of the ovary are large cystic tumors (Dermoid cyst) with an average size of about 15 cm (range 0.5 - 40 cm). The external surface is smooth and grayish white. The interior is fluid-filled and frequently contains yellow-white keratin debris, greasy sebaceous material and tufts of hair.
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The acid-base proton theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors based on the transfer of protons (hydrogen ions, positively charged). The acid-base electron theory defines acids as electron acceptors and bases as electron donors based on the transfer of electrons (negatively charged). These two definitions differ little, though the latter is more widely applied because the former cannot encompass protons themselves or substances exhibiting acidity without exchanging protons.
The proton theory also introduces the concept of “conjugation.” The product formed when an acid loses a proton is called its conjugate base, while the product formed when a base gains a proton is called its conjugate acid.
Fundamentally, the strength of acids and bases is typically assessed through equilibrium reactions. By considering the equilibrium of a mixture containing two acids/bases and their conjugate acids/bases, the side toward which the equilibrium shifts indicates the weaker acid or base—hence the principle of “strengthening the weaker.”
Thus, we also have: The stronger the acidity of a substance, the weaker the basicity of its conjugate base; conversely, the stronger the basicity, the weaker the acidity of its conjugate acid.
Equilibrium can be described by equilibrium constants, so acidity/basicity can also be judged by these constants. Generally:
For acids, the larger Ka and the smaller pKa, the stronger the acidity; conversely, the weaker it is.
For bases, the larger Kb and the smaller pKb, the stronger the basicity; conversely, the weaker it is.
Note that in the same solvent, the product of a substance and its conjugate acid/base equals the solvent's own ion product, which is a constant. Clearly, the stronger the acidity of a substance, the weaker the basicity of its conjugate base; conversely, the stronger the basicity, the weaker the acidity of its conjugate acid.
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# Pathology
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The pattern of cerebral damage that results from perinatal/neonatal hypoxic-ischemia (/articles/patterns-of-neonatal-hypoxicischaemic-brain-injury?embed_domain=stagi&lang=us) depends on both gestational age (preterm or term) as well as the degree of insult (acute profound versus sustained partial asphyxia). Ulegyria is usually the result of sustained incomplete hypoxia in term babies$^{4}$.
Cas e 2 (/cases/ulegyria-2#image-44259078)
<cases>ulegyria-in Lennox-gastaut-syndrome#image-12711502</cases>
<image 2>
Cas e 3 (/cases/ulegyria-7#image-71694547)
Damage occurs in a borderzone distribution between the middle cerebral artery and posterior cerebral artery territories. A region of ulegyria is characterized by mushroom-shaped morphology of gyri. The crest of the gyri is relatively spared, whereas the cortex and subcortical white matter within the depth of the sulcus are atrophied $^{2-4}$.
# Radiographic features
# MRI
Ulegyria is characterized by an ill-defined region typically within the posterior temporal, parietal, occipital region with volume loss and increased T2/FLAIR signal of the subcortical white matter $^{3,4}$. The overlying gyri are atrophic with relative sparing of the crest leading to so-called mushroom morphology $^{2-4}$
# History and etymology
The term ulegyria is derived from the Greek ule meaning "scar" and was coined by Bresler in 1899$^{4}$. In this publication, he also likened the appearance to mushrooms$^{3}$.
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# 1960s
In November 1964, Warhol's first Flowers series exhibited at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York. In May 1965, his second Flowers series, which had more sizes and color variation that the previous, was shown at Galerie Ileana Sonnabend in Paris. During this trip Warhol announced that he was retiring from painting to focus on film.
From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, Warhol surrounded himself with a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentricities upon whom he bestowed the designation "superstars", including Baby Jane Holzer, Brigid Berlin, Ondine, Edie Sedgewick, Ingrid Superstar, Nico, International Velvet, Mary Woronov, Viva, Ultra Violet, Joe Dallesandro, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis and Jane Forth. These people participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and filmmaker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teenagers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life, including writer David Dalton, photographer Stephen Shore, and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck).
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Warhol amid his Brillo Box (1964) sculptures at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, 1968
The experimental rock group the Velvet Underground was taken on by Warhol around the end of 1965. In his capacity as their manager, he included them as a key component of his Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performances in 1966 and 1967, and he funded their debut album, The Velvet Underground & Nico (1967).
Warhol made a conscious decision to oppose conventional painting, stating that he no longer believed in painting. In response to art dealer Ivan Karp's suggestion to paint cows, Warhol produced Cow Wallpaper, which covered the walls of the Leo Castelli Gallery during his April 1966 exhibition.
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# Conflict criminology
Largely based on the writings of Karl Marx, conflict criminology holds that crime in capitalist societies cannot be adequately understood without a recognition that such societies are dominated by a wealthy elite whose continuing dominance requires the economic exploitation of others, and that the ideas, institutions and practices of such societies are designed and managed in order to ensure that such groups remain marginalised, oppressed and vulnerable. Members of marginalised and oppressed groups may sometimes turn to crime in order to gain the material wealth that apparently brings equality in capitalist societies, or simply in order to survive. Conflict criminology derives its name from the fact that theorists within the area believe that there is no consensual social contract between state and citizen.
# Discussion
Conflict theory assumes that every society is subjected to a process of continuous change and that this process creates social conflicts. Hence, social change and social conflict are ubiquitous. Individuals and social classes, each with distinctive interests, represent the constituent elements of a society. As such, they are individually and collectively participants in this process but there is no guarantee that the interests of each class will coincide. Indeed, the lack of common ground is likely to bring them into conflict with each other. From time to time, each element's contribution may be positive or negative, constructive or destructive. To that extent, therefore, the progress made by each society as a whole is limited by the acts and omissions of some of its members by others. This limitation may promote a struggle for greater progress but, if the less progressive group has access to the coercive power of law, it may entrench inequality and oppress those deemed less equal. In turn, this inequality will become a significant source of conflict. The theory identifies the state and the law as instruments of oppression used by the ruling class for their own benefit.
There are various strands of conflict theory, with many heavily critiquing the others. Structural Marxist criminology, which is essentially the most 'pure' version of the above, has been frequently accused of idealism, and many critics point to the fact that the Soviet Union and such states had as high crime rates as the capitalist West. Furthermore, some highly capitalist states such as Switzerland have very low crime rates, thus making structural theory seem improbable.
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# Sector model
The sector model, also known as the Hoyt model, is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it allows for an outward progression of growth. As with all simple models of such complex phenomena, its validity is limited.
<image 1>
A basic version of the Sector model
# Application
This model applies to numerous British cities. Also, if it is turned 90 degrees counter-clockwise it fits the city of Mönchengladbach reasonably accurately. This may be because of the age of the cities when transportation was a key, as a general rule older cities follow the Hoyt model and more recent cities follow the Burgess (concentric zone) model.
# Limitations
The theory is based on early twentieth-century rail transport and does not make allowances for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries. This occurred in Calgary in the 1930s when many near-slums were established outside the city but close to the termini of the street car lines. These are now incorporated into the city boundary but are pockets of low-cost housing in medium cost areas. The theory also does not take into account the new concepts of edge cities and boomburbs, which began to emerge in the 1980s, after the creation of the model. Since its creation, the traditional Central Business District has diminished in importance as many retail and office buildings have moved into the suburbs.
- Physical features - physical features may restrict or direct growth along certain wedges
The growth of a sector can be limited by leapfrog land.
The theory too lacks the idea based on land topography.
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# Histology, Bone
Mirza A. Baig: Dhouha Bacha
# Introduction
Bone is the primary anatomical structure comprising of the human skeletal system. Functionally, it assumes a significant mechanical role by the skeleton, and represents a stock of mineral salts to mobilize for maintenance of calcium and phosphorus homeostasis. It protects several vital organs (skull, vertebrae and rib cage). Through the medullary spaces, it hosts, the bone provides structural and functional support for hematopoiesis
Several classifications can be proposed to separate bone subtypes. Overall, there are five generalized varieties of human bones (long, short, flat, sesamoid, and irregular) and two architectural subtypes, cortical and trabecular bones. The focus of this topic is on the different microscopic structures and components of bone.
# Structure
As a specialized connective tissue, bone is comprised of mainly type 1 collagen fibers and inorganic salts. Type 1 collagen is a non-calcified matrix designed to resist the tension experienced by the weight-bearing functions of bone. It forms from osteoblasts, the main cellular component of bone.
Osteoblasts function in the production, transport, and arrangement of the osteoid matrix. Furthermore, they initiate and regulate matrix mineralization and control the neighboring bone cells activities. Osteoblasts morphology is closely related to their metabolic status. They are spindle-shaped when quiescent. When active, they are polyhedral, with abundant basophilic cytoplasm intimately in contact with the bone. They have a conspicuous nucleolus and a prominent perinuclear halo (developed Golgi apparatus).
Once the osteoid is mineralized, the precursor cells get surrounded by organic intracellular substances called lacunae to become fully developed and matured into osteocytes. The mineral content is chiefly hydroxyapatite crystals composed of mainly calcium and phosphate ions but can occasionally have sodium and carbonate as well.
Osteocytes have a widespread distribution. Their cell processes are fundamental to allows osseous tissue to be responsive to the mechanical and metabolic organism constraints. Histologically, they have long and delicate cytoplasmic processes and small nuclei, not always visible in every plane of section. Their number, size, shape, and position vary according to bone type. In fact, in woven bone, they are numerous, large, and disorganized, whereas, in lamellar bone, they are fewer in number, smaller, spindle-shaped and architecturally regular.
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# Mechanical and organic solidarity
In sociology, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity are the two types of social solidarity that were formulated by Émile Durkheim, introduced in his Division of Labour in Society (1893) as part of his theory on the development of societies. According to Durkheim, the type of solidarity will correlate with the type of society, either mechanical or organic society. The two types of solidarity can be distinguished by morphological and demographic features, type of norms in existence, and the intensity and content of the conscience collective.
In a society that exhibits mechanical solidarity, its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals—people feel connected through similar work; educational and religious training; age; gender; and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in traditional and small-scale societies (e.g., tribes). In these simpler societies, solidarity is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks.
Organic solidarity is a social cohesion based upon the interdependence that arises between people from the specialization of work and complementarianism as result of more advanced (i.e., modern and industrial) societies. Although individuals perform different tasks and often have different values and interests, the order and very solidarity of society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specified tasks. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts. Farmers, for example, produce the food that feeds the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmers to produce the food.
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# First diseases
Very little is known about disease in Hawaii before Western presence. While there was certainly trauma-related disease and other degenerative illnesses (including evidence of cancer in fossil bones) before Western influence, it is not known if there were any large epidemics that eliminated a significant number of people. The first accounts of major disease in the Hawaiian Islands trace back to early settlers and explorers like Captain James Cook, a British explorer who arrived at the Hawaiian Islands (which he called the Sandwich Islands) in the late 1770s.
# The arrival of James Cook
Captain Cook made two voyages to the Hawaiian islands with his ships and crew. On these two voyages, the crew members brought two venereal diseases. While historians do not know for sure what exactly these ailments were, they are assumed to be gonorrhoea and syphilis. Captain Cook was aware that the men on his ship were most likely afflicted with these diseases, and despite the fact that epidemiology was not an understood science at this point, Captain Cook knew enough to understand the dangers of bringing
his crew ashore. Because of this, Cook decided to keep his men on the boat, and keep all Native women away from the boat so as not to transmit these diseases into the native population. Despite his efforts, he was unsuccessful. There were instances of Cook's crew having sexual relations with the Native Hawaiian women, transmitting these venereal diseases to them and introducing the illnesses into the population as a whole.
# First landfall in January 1778
Cook and his crew made their first voyage to Hawaii on January 18, 1778, on the coast of Kauai. On this trip, their contact was contained to this island (mostly the leeward coast) and Niihau. During their time docked near the islands, stormy seas pushed the men onto the shore of Niihau, where they were able to interact with the Native population. Primary accounts from crew members such as
Captain James Cook
the on-board surgeon suggest that many of the shipmates had sexual relationships with the Native women. This was enough to introduce disease, even though they stayed only a few weeks, leaving on 2 February.
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# Part II: Mansa Musa and the Catalan Atlas
The Mali Empire of medieval West Africa was a critical part of trans-Saharan trade networks. It controlled land with large quantities of gold deposits, and this precious resource, along with countless other goods, were traded in the urban commercial centers of Timbuktu and Gao.
In the early 14th century, Mansa Musa I was the leader of Mali. Mali was diverse and multiethnic, the result of longstanding cultural exchange within the region due to trade. Islam had been practiced in West Africa for centuries but was not adopted by the ruling class until just before Mansa Musa’s reign (1312–37). In 1324, he embarked on a hajj, or a pilgrimage to Mecca (in what is now Saudi Arabia), traveling through North Africa to reach the Arabian Peninsula.
Multiple Arabic texts from the period mention Mansa Musa’s voyage and remark upon his considerable wealth and generosity. Thanks to his pilgrimage, the renown of Mansa Musa spread throughout much of the Mediterranean world. For example, Mansa Musa is depicted in the Catalan Atlas produced on the island of Majorca in 1375.
Ariel Fein provides background, context, and details useful for educators and students in “The Catalan Atlas,” Smarthistory, June 6, 2022.
Begin by having students explore the Catalan Atlas manuscript, which the Bibliothèque Nationale de France has digitized and published online via Gallica.
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What is the ABC model?
The ABC model was first explicitly articulated in 1991, in a seminal paper by Enrico Coen and Elliot Meyerowitz. Although homeotic mutations affecting floral organ identity had been known for centuries, it was the systematic analyses of these mutations, and of the phenotypes produced by double and triple mutants, that proved to be critical in developing the ABC model. Building on previous genetic analyses in two different species, Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon) and Arabidopsis thaliana, Coen and Meyerowitz proposed that distinct organ identities are specified by a unique combination of homeotic ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ gene activities within each whorl (Figure 1). The second tenet of the model was that the A and C functions negatively regulate each other. Together, these two components of the model can explain normal organ identity in each whorl, and at the same time explain a wide variety of homeotic mutant phenotypes (Figure 1).
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# Structure:
- Surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
- Contains nucleoplasm, chromatin (DNA + proteins), and nucleolus (makes ribosomes).
# Function:
- Controls all cell activities.
- Stores genetic information (DNA).
- Directs cell division and protein synthesis.
Analoav: It's like the brain or boss of the cell
# B. Mitochondria – The Powerhouse
# Structure:
- Oval-shaped with a double membrane.
- Inner membrane folded into cristae, which increases surface area.
# Function:
- Produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.
- Breaks down sugars and fats.
- Analogy: Like a power plant providing electricity to a city.
# C. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – The Transport System
There are two types:
# 1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
- Covered with ribosomes.
- Helps make and transport proteins
# 2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
- No ribosomes.
- Makes lipids (fats) and detoxifies chemicals.
Analogy: Like a factory conveyor belt or delivery system.
# D. Ribosomes – Protein Factories
# Structure:
- Small. round particles.
- Can be free-floating or attached to RER.
# Function:
Make proteins by reading genetic instructions.
Analogy: Like chefs making food (proteins) for the cell.
# E. Golgi Apparatus – The Packaging Center
# Structure:
- Stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs.
# Function:
- Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids
- Ships them to their final destination.
Analogy: Like a post office or packaging warehouse.
# F. Lysosomes – The Cleaning Crew
# Structure:
Small, spherical organelles filled with digestive enzymes
# Function:
Breaks down waste, old cell parts, and harmful substances
Analogy: Like garbage trucks or recycling plants.
# G. Vacuoles – Storage Compartments
# Structure:
- Membrane-bound sacs filled with fluid.
# Function:
- Store water. nutrients. and waste.
- In plant cells, the central vacuole keeps the plant firm.
Analogy: Like a storage room or water tank.
# H. Cytoskeleton – The Cell's Framework
# Structure:
Made of protein filaments: microtubules and microfilaments.
# Function:
- Gives shape and support to the cell.
- Helps in cell movement and transport.
Analogy: Like beams and supports in a building.
# I. Cell Membrane – The Gatekeeper
# Structure:
Thin, flexible layer made of lipids and proteins
# Function:
- Protects the cell.
- Controls what enters and leaves the cell.
Analogy: Like a security guard or gate.
# 4. Plant Cell-Specific Organelles
Plant cells have a few extra organelles not found in animal cells
# J. Chloroplasts – The Solar Panels
# Structure:
- Green, oval-shaped with stacks of thylakoids inside.
- Contains chlorophyll, the green pigment.
# Function:
- Performs photosynthesis (converts sunlight into energy).
- Makes food (glucose) for the plant.
Analogy: Like solar panels collecting sunlight to make power.
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# Imaging modalities
Ultrasonography is the procedure of choice in suspected gallbladder or biliary disease; it is the most sensitive, specific, noninvasive, and inexpensive test for the detection of gallstones. Current high-resolution, real-time US can identify gallstones as small as 2 mm, with a sensitivity greater than 95%. Moreover, it is simple, rapid, and safe in pregnancy, and it does not expose the patient to harmful radiation or intravenous contrast. An added advantage is that it can be performed by skilled practitioners at the bedside. False negatives may occur on ultrasonograms when small stones are in the presence of biliary sludge. Inadequate visualization of the gallbladder may occur in obese patients or patients with abdominal wounds.
Although cholecintigraphy is recognized to have a higher sensitivity and specificity, US remains the initial test of choice for imaging patients with suspected acute cholecystitis (AC). Among its disadvantages are longer study time, ionizing radiation, and findings limited to the hepatobiliary tract.
Radiography of the abdomen is of limited value for evaluating right upper quadrant pain. Although abdominal radiographs performed for initial evaluation may identify gallstones, they are not sufficient for establishing diagnoses of AC.
Only 74\-79% of gallstones are identified in patients with computed tomography (CT) scanning. CT is not a screening tool for uncomplicated cholelithiasis. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is not a diagnostic screening tool for cholelithiasis. Stones may be incidental findings on abdominal MRI.
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(See the images below.)
Cholelithiasis. Ultrasound image obtained with a 4-MHz transducer demonstrates a stone in the gallbladder neck with typical acoustic shadow.
Cholelithiasis. A noncalcified filling defect is present in the gallbladder on this contrast-enhanced CT. Ultrasound examination confirmed a mobile stone and excluded the other possible diagnoses of polyp or tumor.
Cholelithiasis. Multiple tiny gallstones appear as signal void-filling defects in the gallbladder on this T1\-weighted spoiled gradient\-echo sequence
Each type of stone has a particular pathophysiology and specific set of risk factors that alter the equilibrium and solubility of the components of bile. Biliary microlithiasis refers to the presence of gallbladder calculi smaller than 2 mm, which is too small to be detected by current imaging techniques.
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# Introduction to Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium forms the epidermis (outermost layer) of human skin. Under 100X magnification you should be able to see individual cells of the epidermis. Note how cells near the basement membrane appear round with large darkly-stained nuclei. Squamous cells near the apical surface appear as large sheets of dead cells that are eventually sloughed (shed) from the apical surface. Pick a spot to zoom in and study under high power.
Tutorial: Use the hotspot image below to learn more about the characteristics of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium lining the esophagus.
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Tutorial: Use the hotspot image below to learn more about the characteristics of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium composing the epidermis of skin.
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Tutorial: Use the image slider below to study numerous examples of stratified squamous epithelium.
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# Function
The transitional epithelium cells stretch readily in order to accommodate fluctuation of volume of the liquid in an organ (the distal part of the urethra becomes non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium in females; the part that lines the bottom of the tissue is called the basement membrane). Transitional epithelium also functions as a barrier between the lumen, or inside hollow space of the tract that it lines and the bloodstream. To help achieve this, the cells of transitional epithelium are connected by tight junctions, or virtually impenetrable junctions that seal together to the cellular membranes of neighboring cells. This barrier prevents re-absorption of toxic wastes and pathogens by the bloodstream.
# Clinical significance
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Transitional epithelium animation, highlighting the epithelial layer, then underlying connective tissue. Contrast the messy appearance of the epithelia surface to other epithelial tissues.
Urothelium is susceptible to carcinoma. Because the bladder is in contact with urine for extended periods, chemicals that become concentrated in the urine can cause bladder cancer. For example, cigarette smoking leads to the concentration of carcinogens in the urine and is a leading cause of bladder cancer. Aristolochic acid, a compound found in plants of the family Aristolochiaceae, also causes DNA mutations and is a cause of liver, urothelial and bladder cancers.
# Carcinoma
Carcinoma is a type of cancer that occurs in epithelial cells. Transitional cell carcinoma is the leading type of bladder cancer, occurring in 9 out of 10 cases. It is also the leading cause of cancer of the ureter, urethra, and urachus, and the second leading cause of cancer of the kidney. Transitional cell carcinoma can develop in two different ways. Should the transitional cell carcinoma grow toward the inner surface of the bladder via finger-like projections, it is known as papillary carcinoma. Otherwise, it is known as flat carcinoma. Either form can transition from non-invasive to invasive by spreading into the muscle layers of the bladder. Transitional cell carcinoma is commonly multifocal, more than one tumor occurring at the time of diagnosis.
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Brain Map: Occipital Lobes
Occipital Lobes
The occipital lobes sit at the back of the head and are responsible for visual perception, including colour, form and motion.
Damage to the occipital lobe can include:
- Difficulty with locating objects in environment
- Difficulty with identifying colours (Colour Agnosia)
- Production of hallucinations
- Visual illusions - inaccurately seeing objects
- Word blindness - inability to recognise words
- Difficulty in recognizing drawn objects
- Inability to recognize the movement of an object (Movement Agnosia)
- Difficulties with reading and writing
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# US imperialism
U.S. imperialism or American imperialism is the expansion of political, economic, cultural, media, and military influence beyond the boundaries of the United States. Depending on the commentator, it may include imperialism through outright military conquest; military protection; gunboat diplomacy; unequal treaties; subsidization of preferred factions; regime change; economic or diplomatic support; or economic penetration through private companies, potentially followed by diplomatic or forceful intervention when those interests are threatened.
The policies perpetuating American imperialism and expansionism are usually considered to have begun with "New Imperialism" in the late 19th century, though some consider American territorial expansion and settler colonialism at the expense of Indigenous Americans to be similar enough in nature to be identified with the same term. While the United States has never officially identified itself and its territorial possessions as an empire, some commentators have referred to the country as such, including Max Boot, Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., and Niall Ferguson. Other commentators have accused the United States of practicing neocolonialism—sometimes defined as a modern form of hegemony—which leverages economic power rather than military force in an informal empire; the term "neocolonialism" has occasionally been used as a contemporary synonym for modern-day imperialism.
The question of whether the United States should intervene in the affairs of foreign countries has been a much-debated topic in domestic politics for the country's entire history. Opponents of interventionism have pointed to the country's origin as a former colony that rebelled against an overseas king, as well as the American values of democracy, freedom, and independence. Conversely, supporters of interventionism and of American presidents who have attacked foreign
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1898 political cartoon: "Ten thousand miles from tip to tip." referring to the expansion of American domination (symbolized by a bald eagle) from Puerto Rico to the Philippines following the Spanish–American War; the cartoon contrasts this with a map showing the significantly smaller size of the United States in 1798, exactly 100 years earlier.
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Map of the United States and directly controlled territories at its greatest extent from 1898 to 1902, after the Spanish–American War
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Under the framework of quantum mechanics and molecular orbital theory, hybrid orbitals are the recombination of atomic orbitals. The ground - state electron configuration of carbon is 2s²2p². When forming molecules, its s and p orbitals mix to create new hybrid orbitals, which have different spatial distributions and determine molecular geometry and bonding properties.
**sp³ hybridization: Methane's tetrahedral structure**
In methane (CH₄), carbon uses sp³ hybridization. The s orbital mixes with three p orbitals to form four equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals. These arrange tetrahedrally with a bond angle of about 109.5°, making methane one of the most stable organic molecules.
**sp² hybridization: Ethylene's planar triangular structure**
In ethylene (C₂H₄), carbon uses sp² hybridization for double - bond formation. The s orbital combines with two p orbitals to form three sp² hybrid orbitals, arranged planarly at 120°. The unhybridized p orbital is vertical to the plane for π - bond formation, giving ethylene its planar triangular structure.
**sp hybridization: Acetylene's linear structure**
In acetylene (C₂H₂), carbon undergoes sp hybridization. The s orbital mixes with one p orbital to form two sp hybrid orbitals arranged linearly at 180°. The two remaining unhybridized p orbitals form two separate π bonds, resulting in a linear geometry for the acetylene molecule.
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In aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivatives, the carbonyl carbon atom is sp² hybridized, forming three sp² hybrid orbitals. One sp² orbital forms a carbon-oxygen σ bond with sp² hybridized oxygen. The other two can form carbon-hydrogen σ bonds (in aldehydes), carbon-carbon σ bonds (in ketones), or carbon-oxygen σ bonds with hydroxyl, alkoxy, or carboxyl oxygen. Carboxylic acids ionize easily in water to form carboxylate anions. The negatively charged oxygen in the anion facilitates conjugation, creating a resonance hybrid where the two carbon-oxygen bonds are equivalent, intermediate between single and double bonds. The remaining unhybridized p orbital on the carbonyl carbon forms a carbon-oxygen π bond through sideways overlap with the sp² oxygen.
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# Black dot (disease)
Black dot disease is caused by the plant pathogen known as Colletotrichum coccodes (C. coccodes). It affects all underground parts of the potato, including the roots, tuber, and stolon. C. coccodes is also able to infect the stem and foliage of the potato plant. It can be introduced into an area by planting an infected tuber, and then spreading to other plants. A sign of black dot disease is black microsclerotia that are produced by the pathogen, and can be found on the roots, the tuber, the stems, and the leaves. This can be used to diagnose black dot. Symptoms of black dot disease include silvery lesions on the surface of the tuber, brown or black lesions on the leaves, leaf wilting, and chlorosis.
# Environment
Black dot disease can be seen in many of the places that grow potatoes around the world. In a lab cultured sample taken from black dot of potatoes, conidia grew best at 82.4 F and a pH of 6. High humidity and temperature are conducive to the inoculation of black dot. The disease is spread more quickly when there are many sclerotia in the soil, rather than when the foliage is inoculated by conidiospores. Conidia can be spread most readily by water and wind. Infection often occurs in early spring, but symptoms later in the growing season. Stressed plants are more susceptible to getting black dot than plants that are more healthy.
# Management
Spraying fungicides early on in the growing season, before the inoculation of black dot, can reduce the severity of the infection. If fungicide is applied later in the growing season, it has little to no effect on the disease. For fungicides to have a lasting effect, they must be sprayed multiple times. Cultural control is another way to manage black dot disease. This includes rotating non-host crops. The rotation needs to be fairly long (3–4 years), to allow for the survival structures (sclerotia) to die. Other control methods include using certified seed potatoes, planting in soil with relatively low moisture levels, and controlling the level of humidity and the temperature of stored tubers.
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# Corpora amyacea
Corpora amylacea (CA) (from the Latin meaning "starch-like bodies") is a general term for small hyaline masses found in the prostate gland, nervous system, lung, and sometimes in other organs of the body. Corpora amylacea increase in number and size with advancing age, although this increase varies from person to person. In the nervous system, they are particularly abundant in certain neurodegenerative diseases. While their significance is largely unknown, some researchers have suggested that corpora amylacea play a role in the clearance of debris.
The composition and appearance of corpora amylacea can differ in different organs. In the prostate gland, where they are also known as prostatic concretions, corpora amylacea are rich in aggregated protein that has many of the features of amyloid, whereas those in the central nervous system are generally smaller and do not contain amyloid. Corpora amylacea in the central nervous system occur in the foot processes of astrocytes, and they are usually present beneath the pia mater, in the tissues surrounding the ventricles, and around blood vessels. They have been proposed to be part of a family of polyglucosan diseases, in which polymers of glucose collect to form abnormal structures known as polyglucosan bodies. Polyglucosan bodies bearing at least partial resemblance to human corpora amylacea have been observed in various nonhuman species.
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Natural luminescence of corpora amylacea in the lumen of the prostate in ultraviolet light
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Histology of a multilayered corpus amylaceous of the prostate.
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Micrograph of corpora amylacea in benign prostatic glands. H&E stain.
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Micrograph of corpora amylacea (purple spheres) in the brain of a person with Alzheimer's disease. Combined Periodic acid-Schiff and silver stains. Bar = 50 microns (0.05 millimeters).
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# Status Consistency
To illustrate, let's consider Susan. Susan earned her high school degree but did not go to college. That factor is a trait of the lower-middle class. She began doing landscaping work, which, as manual labor, is also a trait of lower-middle class or even lower class. However, over time, Susan started her own company. She hired employees. She won larger contracts. She became a business owner and earned a lot of money. Those traits represent the upper-middle class. There are inconsistencies between Susan's educational level, her occupation, and her income. In a class system, a person can work hard and have little education and still be in middle or upper class, whereas in a caste system that would not be possible. In Britain's monarchy arose during the Middle Ages. Its social hierarchy placed royalty at the top and commoners on the bottom. This was generally a closed system, with people born into positions of nobility. Wealth was passed from generation to generation through primogeniture, a law stating that all property would be inherited by the firstborn son. If the family had no son, the land went to the next closest male relation. Women could not inherit property, and their social standing was primarily determined through marriage.
# Making Connections: Social Policy & Debate
# The Commoner Who Could Be Queen
On April 29, 2011, in London, England, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, married Catherine Middleton, a commoner. It is rare, though not unheard of, for a member of the British royal family to marry a commoner. Kate Middleton has an upper-class background, but does not have royal ancestry. Her father was a former flight dispatcher and her mother a former flight attendant and owner of Party Pieces. According to Grace Wong's 2011 article titled, "Kate Middleton: A family business that built a princess," "[t]he business grew to the point where [her father] quit his job . . . and it's evolved from a mom-and-pop outfit run out of a shed . . . into a venture operated out of three converted farm buildings in Berkshire." Kate and William met when they were both students at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland.
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# The Structure of Prokarvote and Eukarvote Cells
During the 1950s, scientists developed the concept that all organisms may be classified as prokaryotes or eukaryotes. The cells of all prokaryotes and eukaryotes possess two basic features: a plasma membrane, also called a cell membrane, and cytoplasm. However, the cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes. For example, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells lack internal cellular bodies (organelles), while eukaryotic cells possess them. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea. Examples of eukaryotes are protists, fungi, plants, and animals (everything except prokarvates).
# Plasma membrane
All prokaryote and eukaryote cells have plasma membranes. The plasma membrane (also known as the cell membrane) is the outermost cell surface, which separates the cell from the external environment. The plasma membrane is composed primarily of proteins and lipids, especially phospholipids. The lipids occur in two layers (a bilayer). Proteins embedded in the bilayer appear to float within the lipid, so the membrane is constantly in flux. The membrane is therefore referred to as a fluid mosaic structure. Within the fluid mosaic structure, proteins carry out most of the membrane's functions.
The "Movement through the Plasma Membrane" section later in this chapter describes the process by which materials pass between the interior and exterior of a cell.
# Cytoplasm and organelles
All prokaryote and eukaryote cells also have cytoplasm (or cytosol), a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of a cell. Essentially, cytoplasm is the gel-like material enclosed by the plasma membrane.
Within the cytoplasm of eukaryote cells are a number of membrane-bound bodies called organelles ("little organs") that provide a specialized function within the cell.
One example of an organelle is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER is a series of membranes extending throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. In some places, the ER is studded with submicroscopic bodies called ribosomes. This type of ER is called rough ER. In other places, there are no ribosomes. This type of ER is called smooth ER. The rough ER is the site of protein synthesis in a cell because it contains ribosomes; however, the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is responsible for producing lipids. Within the ribosomes, amino acids are actually bound together to form proteins. Cisternae are spaces within the folds of the ER membranes.
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# Aldose
An aldose is a monosaccharide (a simple sugar) with a carbon backbone chain with a carbonyl group on the endmost carbon atom, making it an aldehyde, and hydroxyl groups connected to all the other carbon atoms. Aldoses can be distinguished from ketoses, which have the carbonyl group away from the end of the molecule, and are therefore ketones.
- Triose: glyceraldehyde
Like most carbohydrates, simple aldoses have the general chemical formula C$_n$(H$_2$O)$_n$. Because formaldehyde (n=1) and glycolaldehyde (n=2) are not generally considered to be carbohydrates, the simplest possible aldose is the triose glyceraldehyde, which only contains three carbon atoms.
# Structure
- Tetroses: erythrose, threose
- Pentoses: ribose, arabinose, xylose, lyxose
Because they have at least one asymmetric carbon center, all aldoses exhibit stereoisomerism. Aldoses can exist in either a D- form or L- form. The determination is made based on the chirality of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the aldehyde end, namely the second-last carbon in the chain. Aldoses with alcohol groups on the right of the Fischer projection are D-aldoses, and those with alcohols on the left are L-aldoses. D-aldoses are more common than L-aldoses in nature.
Hexoses: glucose
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Fischer projection of D-glyceraldehyde
Some common aldoses are:
Examples of aldoses include glyceraldehyde, erythrose, ribose, glucose and galactose. Ketoses and aldoses can be chemically differentiated through Seliwanoff's test, where the sample is heated with acid and resorcinol. The test relies on the dehydration reaction which occurs more quickly in ketoses, so that while aldoses react slowly, producing a light pink color, ketoses react more quickly and strongly to produce a dark red color.
Aldoses can isomerize to ketoses through the Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation
# Nomenclature and common aldoses
Aldoses are differentiated by the number of carbon atoms in the main chain. The minimum number of carbon atoms in a backbone needed to form a molecule that is still considered a carbohydrate is 3, and carbohydrates with three carbon atoms are called trioses. The only aldotriose is glyceraldehyde, which has one chiral stereocenter with 2 possible enantiomers, D- and L-glyceraldehyde.
The most commonly discussed category of aldoses are those with six carbon atoms, aldohexoses. Some aldohexoses that are widely called by common names are:
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# Berber Christians
Several notable writers, theologians, and saints of Berber descent emerged, along with key figures in Christian history and Western Christianity. Among them were Donatus Magnus, Cyprian of Carthage, Arius, Saint Monica, and Alypius of Tagaste. Tertullian, regarded as the founder of "Western theology" and the "father of Latin Christianity", and Augustine of Hippo, one of the most influential Fathers of the Church and key figures in Christian philosophy and Western thought, were also of Berber origin. Additionally, three popes of Berber descent ascended to the papacy: Pope Victor I, Pope Miltiades, and Pope Gelasius I.
# Antiquity
Christianity began spreading in North Africa in the 2nd century AD, initially in the Roman provinces of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania (modern-day Libya), later extending into Africa Proconsularis (Tunisia and parts of Algeria) and Tangier in Morocco. Early Christian communities faced persecution from the Roman Empire, particularly under Emperor Decius (250 AD), due to their refusal to worship Roman gods and join the army. Despite this, Coastal regions were the first to embrace Christianity, where Berber communities played a key role in its growth. Saint Augustine, a Berber Christian theologian and bishop of Hippo, became one of the most influential figures of the time. Augustine's authority
Early Christian quarter in ancient Carthage.
on coercion was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity, and according to Peter Brown, "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution". Another important Berber figure, Donatus, founded the Donatist movement, which resonated with Berber culture and their alienation from Roman authority. Despite Roman opposition, Christianity took root in these areas, with many early Christian figures, such as Tertullian, being of Berber origin.
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# Function
The transitional epithelium cells stretch readily in order to accommodate fluctuation of volume of the liquid in an organ (the distal part of the urethra becomes non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium in females; the part that lines the bottom of the tissue is called the basement membrane). Transitional epithelium also functions as a barrier between the lumen, or inside hollow space of the tract that it lines and the bloodstream. To help achieve this, the cells of transitional epithelium are connected by tight junctions, or virtually impenetrable junctions that seal together to the cellular membranes of neighboring cells. This barrier prevents re-absorption of toxic wastes and pathogens by the bloodstream.
# Clinical significance
<image 1>
Transitional epithelium animation, highlighting the epithelial layer, then underlying connective tissue. Contrast the messy appearance of the epithelia surface to other epithelial tissues.
Urothelium is susceptible to carcinoma. Because the bladder is in contact with urine for extended periods, chemicals that become concentrated in the urine can cause bladder cancer. For example, cigarette smoking leads to the concentration of carcinogens in the urine and is a leading cause of bladder cancer. Aristolochic acid, a compound found in plants of the family Aristolochiaceae, also causes DNA mutations and is a cause of liver, urothelial and bladder cancers.
# Carcinoma
Carcinoma is a type of cancer that occurs in epithelial cells. Transitional cell carcinoma is the leading type of bladder cancer, occurring in 9 out of 10 cases. It is also the leading cause of cancer of the ureter, urethra, and urachus, and the second leading cause of cancer of the kidney. Transitional cell carcinoma can develop in two different ways. Should the transitional cell carcinoma grow toward the inner surface of the bladder via finger-like projections, it is known as papillary carcinoma. Otherwise, it is known as flat carcinoma. Either form can transition from non-invasive to invasive by spreading into the muscle layers of the bladder. Transitional cell carcinoma is commonly multifocal, more than one tumor occurring at the time of diagnosis.
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# Overview
<table><thead><tr><th></th><th><strong>Details</strong></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th><strong>System</strong></th><td><em>Nervous system</em></td></tr><tr><th><strong>Location</strong></th><td><em>Myelinated axon of a nerve</em></td></tr><tr><th></th><th><strong>Identifiers</strong></th></tr><tr><th><em>Latin</em></th><td><em>incisura myelini</em></td></tr><tr><th><em>MeSH</em></th><td>D011901</td></tr><tr><th><em>TH</em></th><td>H2.00.06.2.03015</td></tr><tr><th></th><td><em>Anatomical terms of microanatomy</em></td></tr></tbody></table>
zones of contact between different areas of the myelinating cell membrane. Each node of Ranvier is flanked by paranodal regions where helicoidally wrapped glial loops are attached to the axonal membrane by a septate-like junction.
The segment between nodes of Ranvier is termed as the internode, and its outermost part that is in contact with paranodes is referred to as the juxtaparanodal region. The nodes are encapsulated by microvilli stemming from the outer aspect of the Schwann cell
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Node of Ranvier in the peripheral nervous system
membrane in the PNS, or by perinodal extensions from astrocytes in the CNS.
# Structure
The internodes are the myelin segments and the gaps between are referred to as nodes. The size and the spacing of the internodes vary with the fiber diameter in a curvilinear relationship that is optimized for maximal conduction velocity. The size of the nodes span from 1–2 μm whereas the internodes can be up to (and occasionally even greater than) 1.5 millimetres long, depending on the axon diameter and fiber type.
The structure of the node and the flanking paranodal regions are distinct from the internodes under the compact myelin sheath, but are very similar in CNS and PNS. The axon is exposed to the extra-cellular environment at the node and is constricted in its diameter. The decreased axon size reflects a higher packing density of neurofilaments in this region, which are less heavily phosphorylated and are transported more slowly. Vesicles and other organelles are also increased at the nodes, which suggest that there is a bottleneck of axonal transport in both directions as well as local axonal-glial signaling.
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# Isoelectric point
For amino acids with uncharged side-chains the zwitterion predominates at pH values between the two p$K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values, but coexists in equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions. At the midpoint between the two p$K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values, the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions balance, so that average net charge of all forms present is zero. This pH is known as the isoelectric point p$I$, so p$I=\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{p}K_{\mathrm{a1}}+\mathrm{p}K_{\mathrm{a2}})$.
For amino acids with charged side chains, the p$K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of the side chain is involved. Thus for aspartate or glutamate with negative side chains, the terminal amino group is essentially entirely in the charged form $-\mathrm{NH}_{3}^{+}$, but this positive charge needs to be balanced by the state with just one C-terminal carboxylate group is negatively charged. This occurs halfway between the two carboxylate p$K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values: p$I=\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{p}K_{\mathrm{a1}}+\mathrm{p}K_{\mathrm{a(R)}})$, where $\mathrm{p}K_{\mathrm{a(R)}}$ is the side chain p$K_{\mathrm{a}}$.
Similar considerations apply to other amino acids with ionizable side-chains, including not only glutamate (similar to aspartate), but also cysteine, histidine, lysine, tyrosine and arginine with positive side chains.
<image 1>
Ionization and Brønsted character of N-terminal amino, C-terminal carboxylate, and side chains of amino acid residues
<image 2>
Composite of titration curves of twenty proteinogenic amino acids grouped by side chain category
Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point, although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids. Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point, and some amino acids (in particular, with nonpolar side chains) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point.
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Let’s learn about the different parts of a cell and what they do!
<image 1>
All living things have at least one cell. Cells are extremely tiny, and can only be seen in a microscope. Your body has around 30 trillion cells! It was once thought that cells were very simple. However now we know that cells are extremely amazing, complex things— in fact, some people compare cells to an entire city where different things work together. There are various kinds of cells, and in this lesson we will learn about the animal cell and the plant cell. Here are the main parts of the cell:
Cell membrane is the outer coating that surrounds the cell. It is kind of like our skin. It allows things to move through, keeps things out, and protects the cell.
Cytoplasm is like the goo where all organelles float inside the cell. Organelles are like mini organs. Just like you have a brain, heart, and lungs, cells have different parts that help it function. Main organelles of a cell are nucleus, golgi body, mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.
Mitochondrion are the cell power makers. A mitochondria generates chemical energy to power the cell’s life giving chemical reactions.
<image 2>
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) mainly transports proteins. The smooth ER contains ribosomes that make the proteins. The endoplasmic reticulum then transports the proteins throughout the cell.
Ribosomes are protein makers. They are also cell organelles, but they are much tinier than the others. The ribosomes that float around in the cytoplasm make proteins for within the cell, and the ribosomes on the endoplasmic reticulum make proteins for outside the cell.
Vacuole is a place where the cell stores food, water, and waste. Plant cells usually have one or more large vacuoles. If animal cells have vacuoles, they are usually small.
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# Optional sequences:
- T2-FSE without fat sat for additional overview and comparison with T2 with fat sat.
- Diffusion Imaging (DWI)
# Grading Crohn's disease activity
activity in Crohn's disease.
The activity into none, mild,
Formalities and the presence of
<table><thead><tr><td>Score</td><td colspan="2">O</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Thickness</td><td>≤ 3 mm</td><td>> 3 -</td></tr><tr><td>T2-signal on fatsat</td><td>Normal</td><td>Minor if dark</td></tr><tr><td>T1 Enhancement</td><td>Normal</td><td>Minor if less than</td></tr><tr><td>Pattern</td><td>Normal</td><td>Homog</td></tr><tr><td>Length</td><td>0 cm</td><td>≤ 5</td></tr><tr><td>Comb sign</td><td>No</td><td>Yes</td></tr></tbody></table>
Signs of activity. N Total score $\leq$ 8.
Presence of at least one complication: Infiltrate - Abscess - Fistula - Total stenosis
Click for enlarged view
<image 1>
Bowel wall thickening with deep ulceration (arrow) in the transverse colon.
<image 2>
Balanced FFE image shows marked bowel wall thickening and luminal narrowing of the terminal ileum. Measurement on the balanced FFE sequence can be less accurate due to the black border artifact (arrows).
# MRI signs of Crohn's disease
# Bowel wall thickness
With adequate distension the normal bowel wall has a thickness of 1-3 mm. A common categorization is 3-5 mm for mild thickening, 5-7 mm for moderate thickening and > 7 mm for marked thickening of the bowel wall.
T1 weighted post-contrast images or non fatsat T2 weighted images (if available) are preferable for measurement of bowel wall thickness.
The image is a coronal post-contrast T1 weighted image showing disease activity in the transverse colon with marked wall thickening of more than 7 mm and deep ulceration (arrow).
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# Key facts: action potential and synapses
A neuron spikes when a combination of all the excitation and inhibition it receives makes it reach threshold. On the right is an example from an actual neuron in the mouse's cortex. (Image: Alan Woodruff / QBI)
# Synapses: how neurons communicate with each other
Neurons talk to each other across synapses. When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it causes neurotransmitter to be released from the neuron into the synaptic cleft, a 20–40nm gap between the presynaptic axon terminal and the postsynaptic dendrite (often a spine).
After travelling across the synaptic cleft, the transmitter will attach to neurotransmitter receptors on the postsynaptic side, and depending on the neurotransmitter released (which is dependent on the type of neuron releasing it), particular positive (e.g. Na⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺) or negative ions (e.g. Cl⁻) will travel through channels that span the membrane.
Synapses can be thought of as converting an electrical signal (the action potential) into a chemical signal in the form of neurotransmitter release, and then upon binding of the transmitter to the postsynaptic receptor, switching the signal back again into an electrical form, as charged ions flow into or out of the postsynaptic neuron.
<image 1>
An action potential, or spike, causes neurotransmitters to be released across the synaptic cleft, causing an electrical signal in the postsynaptic neuron (Image: By Thomas Splettstoesser (http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=41349083) / CC BY-SA 4.0)
# Video: Action potentials in neurons
# Concepts and definitions
Axon – The long, thin structure in which action potentials are generated; the transmitting part of the neuron. After initiation, action potentials travel down axons to cause release of neurotransmitter.
Dendrite – The receiving part of the neuron. Dendrites receive synaptic inputs from axons, with the sum total of dendritic inputs determining whether the neuron will fire an action potential.
Spine – The small protrusions found on dendrites that are, for many synapses, the postsynaptic contact site
Membrane potential – The electrical potential across the neuron's cell membrane, which arises due to different distributions of positively and negatively charged ions within and outside of the cell. The value inside of the cell is always stated relative to the outside: -70 mV means the inside is 70 mV more negative than the outside (which is given a value of 0 mV).
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Complications of Hip Fracture
Serious complications can result from a hip fracture. A patient may have to remain in traction for a specified period of time after surgery. Blood clots can occur in the veins, usually in the legs. If a clot breaks off, it can travel to a blood vessel in the lung. This blockage, called a pulmonary embolism, can be fatal.
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They also found discrimination in the North although it was much different from that which they had known in the South.
1941 caption 1993 caption
<image 1>
Divided in two by a bold yellow rope—white diners on the left, black ones on the right—this restaurant offers a stark image of segregation. Lawrence's caption insists that discrimination was present and palpable in the North, though it differed from Jim Crow rules in the South. The prohibition of interaction between blacks and whites described in this painting would have struck southern migrants as disturbingly familiar.
# History
Race relations above the Mason-Dixon Line were far from idyllic. President Woodrow Wilson allowed cabinet members to segregate federal employees, setting a highly visible standard that provoked protest from black leaders. And when local legal codes did not dictate segregation, social norms often did. Growing up in New York, Lawrence was curious about the city's famous galleries but hesitated to wander alone outside Harlem. "One did not just go into galleries," he said in a 1995 interview. "You didn't feel that you were welcome."
<image 2>
Arthur S. Siegel. Detroit, Michigan. Riot at the Sojourner Truth homes, a new U.S. federal housing project, caused by white neighbors' attempt to prevent Negro tenants from moving in. Sign with American flag "We want white tenants in our white community," directly opposite the housing project. 1942
Black residents of Detroit, many of whom had migrated to the city to take jobs in the defense industry during World War II, faced resistance as they began to move into the newly built Sojourner Truth housing projects, which were adjacent to a white community, in January and February 1942. Protests by white residents escalated into a riot, and thousands of police officers and National Guard members were required to guard the first six families to move in.
# Culture
Segregation was especially stringent in night clubs and other "recreational situations that emphasize active participation ... and in which men and women participate together," write St. Clair Drake and Horace Clayton in Black Metropolis. The iconic Cotton Club, which opened in Harlem in 1923, catered to an exclusively white clientele, but black entertainers like Cab Calloway were the main draw. The Cotton Club advertised entertainment by "sepian stars" and "copper-colored gals"; the stage resembled the veranda of an antebellum plantation.
<image 3>
Female vocalist entertains patrons at Café Society, Greenwich Village, 1947
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# Overview
<table><thead><tr><th>Population</th><th>21,763,170 (2024 Census)</th></tr><tr><th>Density</th><th>332/km<sup>2</sup> (2018)</th></tr><tr><th>Growth rate</th><th>0.61% (2022)</th></tr><tr><th>Birth rate</th><th>11.2 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)</th></tr><tr><th>Death rate</th><th>8.2 deaths/1,000 population (2023 est.)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><th>Life expectancy</th><td>75.94 years (2012 est.)</td></tr><tr><th>• male</th><td>72.43 years (2012 est.)</td></tr><tr><th>• female</th><td>79.59 years (2012 est.)</td></tr><tr><th>Fertility rate</th><td>1.97 children born/woman (2023 est.)</td></tr><tr><th>Infant mortality rate</th><td>9.47 deaths/1,000 live births (2012 est.)</td></tr><tr><th></th><th><strong>Age structure</strong></th></tr><tr><th>0–14 years</th><td>25.24% (2019)</td></tr><tr><th>15–64 years</th><td>66.92% (2019)</td></tr><tr><th>65 and over</th><td>7.84% (2019)</td></tr><tr><th></th><th><strong>Sex ratio</strong></th></tr><tr><th>Total</th><td>0.93 male(s)/female (2018)</td></tr><tr><th>At birth</th><td>1.02 male(s)/female (2018)</td></tr><tr><th>Under 15</th><td>1.02 male(s)/female (2018)</td></tr><tr><th>15–64 years</th><td>0.93 male(s)/female (2018)</td></tr><tr><th>65 and over</th><td>0.76 male(s)/female (2018)</td></tr><tr><th></th><th><strong>Nationality</strong></th></tr><tr><th>Nationality</th><td><em>noun</em>: Sri Lankan(s)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td><em>adjective</em>: Sri Lankan</td></tr><tr><th>Major ethnic</th><td><u>Sinhala</u> (74.9%) (2012 census)</td></tr><tr><th>Minor ethnic</th><td>Sri Lanka Tamil (11.1%) (2012 census)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td><u>Moor</u> (9.3%) (2012 census)</td></tr><tr><th></th><td><u>Indian Tamil</u> (4.1%) (2012 census)</td></tr><tr><th></th><th><strong>Language</strong></th></tr><tr><th>Official</th><td>Sinhala, Tamil</td></tr><tr><th>Spoken</th><td>English</td></tr></tbody></table>
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The Catholic population in Southeast Asian countries varies significantly, influenced by historical, cultural, and social factors. These percentages reflect the diverse religious landscape of Southeast Asia, shaped by various historical and cultural influences.
<image 1>
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# Verticillium wilt
Ingrid Berlanger and Mary L. Powelson
Oregon State University
Date Accepted: 01 Jan 2005 | Date Published: 01 Jan 2005
# DISEASE: Verticillium wilt
PATHOGENS: Verticillium dahliae and Verticillium albo-atrum
HOSTS: Over 400 plant species including herbaceous annuals (ex. -potato), perennials (ex. -peppermint), and woody species (ex. -maple). This list is expanding with the addition of new hosts succumbing to the pathogen.
Note: Several species of Verticillium cause symptoms of Verticillium wilt, but Verticillium dahliae and V. albo-atrum cause economic losses in crops in temperate regions of the world and hence are the most studied species. The disease cycle of both species is similar in most aspects except that V. dahliae produces microsclerotia and V. albo-atrum produces melanized mycelia for survival between crops. Therefore, only V. dahliae is emphasized in this lesson.
<image 1>
Unilateral leaf necrosis and wilt in potato
Verticillium spp. have a wide host range, including herbaceous annuals and perennials and woody perennials. Verticillium wilt is problematic in temperate areas of the world, especially in irrigated regions. The pathogens can persist in soil for many years in the absence of a susceptible crop. Infection is through the roots, and management of the disease is difficult.
# Symptoms and Signs
Symptoms vary somewhat among hosts, and none is absolutely diagnostic. Premature foliar chlorosis and necrosis and vascular discoloration in stems and roots, however, are characteristic of all hosts. Symptoms of wilting are most evident on warm, sunny days.
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# Epithelia
The Histology Guide
Basic Tissue Types
Introduction
Epithelial Functions
Classifying Epithelia
Specialisations of epithelia
Epithelial glands
Goblet cells
# Epithelium: Types of simple epithelium
# Squamous
search
<image 1>
Self test options
Epithelia Quiz
Squamous means scale-like.
simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flat scale-shaped cells.
Both the endothelial lining of blood vessels and the mesothelial lining of the body cavities are simple squamous epithelium.
Try to identify the simple squamous epithelia in these pictures.
# Cuboidal
Lines small ducts, tubules.
<image 2>
It can have an excretory, secretory or abortive function - i.e. in salivary glands.
This image opposite is of ducts in the kidney, which are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.
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# Asthma Phenotypes
Asthma was long thought to manifest as two major phenotypes, non-atopic or “intrinsic” asthma, and atopic or “extrinsic” asthma. Early-onset atopic asthma is most prevalent during childhood and into young adulthood, after which the non-atopic form predominates among older age groups. Additional asthma phenotypes were defined using a hypothesis-based approach, which classified patients into broad categories based on a single variable, including disease severity, symptom triggers, age at onset, inflammatory patterns, exacerbations, and airflow obstruction. A major limitation with this approach arose because the categories could not distinguish the groups, and many overlapped.
In contrast, the newer approaches have used a systems biology methodology that mitigates the effect of preconceived biases. These cluster analyses have applied algorithms that integrate the effect of multiple interacting components in large cohorts to describe and predict clinical phenotypes as well as molecular mechanisms of asthma. These include the Severe Asthma Research Program (SARP), the Unbiased Biomarkers for the Prediction of Respiratory Disease Outcome (U-BIOPRED), and Airways Disease Endotyping for Personalized Therapeutics (ADEPT). Although differences in clusters were found, a consensus on specific subsets have emerged. They include two major groups: T2-high and non-T2-high groups.
# Type 2 (T2)-High Endotype
The type 2 immune response-driven endotype consists of an intricate interplay of several individual pathways (Fig. 1). The T2-high asthma endotype encompasses several related subtypes in both children and adults. Since most emerging biologic treatments are targeted toward T2 cytokines, we will attempt to delineate the pathophysiology of T2 asthma in the context of relevant cytokines and other molecular targets.
Fig. 1.
<image 1>
T2-high inflammatory pathways in asthma. A dysregulated epithelial barrier facilitates translocation of allergens, air pollution, and viruses, leading to release of alarmins such as thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), IL-25, and IL-33. TSLP primes dendritic cells to induce the differentiation of naïve T cells into Th2 cells. Th2 cells activate B cells via IL-4 to differentiate into plasma cells that generate IgE required for mast cell responses to allergens. The alarmins IL-25 and IL-33 can activate group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils. Activated ILC2s, like Th2 cells, produce IL-5 and IL-13. IL-5 promotes eosinophil differentiation and survival. IL-13, IL-4, and inflammatory mediators from mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils have effects on airway hyperresponsiveness, smooth muscle hypertrophy, and airway remodeling. CysLT, cysteinyl leukotrienes; ECP, eosinophil cationic protein; EDN, eosinophil-derived neurotoxin; EPx, eosinophil peroxidase; MBP, major basic protein; PGD2, prostaglandin D2
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# History
The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur". Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making the Grand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his Vedute (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of Carceri d'invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration". The Swiss-born Henry Fuseli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.
Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.
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Divided in two by a bold yellow rope—white diners on the left, black ones on the right—this restaurant offers a stark image of segregation. Lawrence’s caption insists that discrimination was present and palpable in the North, though it differed from Jim Crow rules in the South. The prohibition of interaction between blacks and whites described in this painting would have struck southern migrants as disturbingly familiar.
History
Race relations above the Mason-Dixon Line were far from idyllic. President Woodrow Wilson allowed cabinet members to segregate federal employees, setting a highly visible standard that provoked protest from black leaders. And when local legal codes did not dictate segregation, social norms often did. Growing up in New York, Lawrence was curious about the city’s famous galleries but hesitated to wander alone outside Harlem. “One did not just go into galleries,” he said in a 1995 interview. “You didn’t feel that you were welcome.”
<image 1>(Arthur S. Siegel. Detroit, Michigan. Riot at the Sojourner Truth homes, a new U.S. federal housing project, caused by white neighbors’ attempt to prevent Negro tenants from moving in. Sign with American flag “We want white tenants in our white community,” directly opposite the housing project. 1942)
Black residents of Detroit, many of whom had migrated to the city to take jobs in the defense industry during World War II, faced resistance as they began to move into the newly built Sojourner Truth housing projects, which were adjacent to a white community, in January and February 1942. Protests by white residents escalated into a riot, and thousands of police officers and National Guard members were required to guard the first six families to move in.
Culture
Segregation was especially stringent in night clubs and other “recreational situations that emphasize active participation … and in which men and women participate together,” write St. Clair Drake and Horace Clayton in Black Metropolis (1945). The iconic Cotton Club, which opened in Harlem in 1923, catered to an exclusively white clientele, but black entertainers like Cab Calloway were the main draw. The Cotton Club advertised entertainment by “sepian stars” and “copper-colored gals”; the stage resembled the veranda of an antebellum plantation.
<image 2>(Female vocalist entertains patrons at Café Society, Greenwich Village, 1947)
Meanwhile, the interracial Café Society, which opened in 1938 in Greenwich Village, was dubbed “the wrong place for the Right people”—a tongue-in-cheek dig at conservatives who would frown at such an establishment. Billie Holiday debuted “Strange Fruit,” which became one of her signature numbers (see panel 15), at the club.
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Compound Duple Meter
Compound duple meter means that there are 2 beats in a bar (duple) and these can be divided into threes (compound).
<image 1>
Compound duple time always has the number 6 at the top of the time signature.
Examples include 6/8 and 6/4.
Compound Triple Meter
Compound triple meter means that there are 3 beats in a bar (triple) and these can be divided into threes (compound).
<image 2>
Compound triple time always has the number 9 at the top of the time signature.
Examples include 9/8, 9/2, 9/16 and 9/4.
Compound Quadruple Meter
Compound quadruple meter means that there are 4 beats in a bar (triple) and these can be divided into threes (compound).
Compound quadruple time always has the number 12 at the top of the time signature.
Examples include 12/8 and 12/16.
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# Carbon dioxide
<image 1>
Comparison of phase diagrams of carbon dioxide (red) and water (blue) showing the carbon dioxide sublimation point (middle-left) at 1 atmosphere. As dry ice is heated, it crosses this point along the bold horizontal line from the solid phase directly into the gaseous phase. Water, on the other hand, passes through a liquid phase at 1 atmosphere.
Snow and ice sublime gradually at temperatures below the solid-liquid boundary (melting point) (generally 0 °C), and at partial pressures below the triple point pressure of 612 Pa (0.00604 atm), at a low rate. In freeze-drying, the material to be dehydrated is frozen and its water is allowed to sublime under reduced pressure or vacuum. The loss of snow from a snowfield during a cold spell is often caused by sunshine acting directly on the upper layers of the snow. Sublimation of ice is a factor to the erosive wear of glacier ice, known as ablation in glaciology.
# Naphthalene
Naphthalene, an organic compound commonly found in pesticides such as mothballs, sublimes easily because it is made of non-polar molecules that are held together only by van der Waals intermolecular forces. Naphthalene is a solid that sublimes gradually at standard temperature and pressure, at a high rate, with the critical sublimation point at around 80 °C (176 °F). At low temperature, its vapour pressure is high enough, 1 mmHg at 53 °C, to make the solid form of naphthalene evaporate into gas. On cool surfaces, the naphthalene vapours will solidify to form needle-like crystals.
<image 2>
Dry ice subliming in air
Experimental set up for the sublimation reaction of naphthalene, solid naphthalene sublimes and form the crystal-like structure at the bottom of the watch glass
# Iodine
Iodine sublimes gradually and produces visible fumes on
iodine sublimes gradually and produces visible fumes on gentle heating at standard atmospheric temperature. It is possible to obtain liquid iodine at atmospheric pressure by controlling the temperature at just between the melting point and the boiling point of iodine.
In forensic science, iodine vapor can reveal latent fingerprints on paper.
# Other substances
At atmospheric pressure, arsenic sublimes gradually upon heating, and sublimes rapidly at 887 K (614 °C).
Cadmium and zinc sublime much more than other common materials, so they are not suitable materials for use in vacuum.
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# Formation
Alluvial fans usually form where a confined feeder channel exits a mountain front or a glacier margin. As the flow exits the feeder channel onto the fan surface, it is able to spread out into wide, shallow channels or to infiltrate the surface. This reduces the carrying power of the flow and results in deposition of sediments.
Flow in the proximal fan, where the slope is steepest, is usually confined to a single channel (a fanhead trench), which may be up to 30 meters (100 ft) deep. This channel is subject to blockage by accumulated sediments or debris flows, which causes flow to periodically break out of its old channel (nodal avulsion) and shift to a part of the fan with a steeper gradient, where deposition resumes. As a result, normally only part of the fan is active at any particular time, and the bypassed areas may undergo soil formation or erosion.
Alluvial fans can be dominated by debris flows (debris flow fans) or stream flow (fluvial fans). Which kind of fan is formed is controlled by climate, tectonics, and the type of bedrock in the area feeding the flow onto the fan.
<image 1>
Alluvial fan in the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang showing active left and inactive right sectors
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# Subchondral Sclerosis
Subchondral bone is the layer of bone just below the cartilage. Sclerosis means that there is a hardening of tissue. Subchondral sclerosis is seen on X-ray as increased bone density, frequently found adjacent to joint space narrowing. The degeneration of bone that occurs in osteoarthritis causes the bone to turn into a dense mass at the articular surfaces of the bone.
# Subchondral Cyst Formation
Subchondral cysts are fluid-filled sacs which extrude from the joint. The cysts contain thickened joint material, mostly hyaluronic acid. Traumatized subchondral bone undergoes cystic degeneration.
# Subluxation
Subluxation can also be seen on X-ray as a possible consequence of osteoarthritis. Subluxation is a partial dislocation of a bone.
# Carol Eustice By Carol Eustice
Carol Eustice is a writer who covers arthritis and chronic illness. She is the author of "The Everything Health Guide to Arthritis."
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# Corrugated Ortho(para)hyperkeratotic Lesion, Not Reactive
Corrugated ortho(para)hyperkeratosis, not reactive. a A clinical photograph of a gingival verruciform leukoplakia (white arrow), adjacent to teeth. b Marked orthohyperkeratosis and epithelial corrugation, with the thickness of the hyperkeratosis > 1/2 of the total biopsy thickness. c Marked orthohyperkeratosis, about twice the thickness of the epithelium below. d Corrugated keratosis and corrugated (undulating) epithelium, showing an abrupt (black arrow) transition to the adjacent epithelium showing limited epithelial dysplasia. e Abrupt, sharp transitions and skip zones of orthokeratosis (black arrows) are a common finding
# Bulky Hyperkeratotic Epithelial Proliferation, Not Reactive
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Figure 2 includes illustrations of the clinical (Fig. 2a) and histologic features of the bulky hyperkeratotic epithelial proliferation, not reactive category (Fig. 2b–e). This lesional category, roughly intermediate between corrugated orthohyperkeratosis and SCC, poses the greatest challenge for reaching consensus and reproducibility. In this category, the composite epithelial features are clearly amplified with either or both exophytic and endophytic proliferations (Fig. 2b and e), but are not sufficient for rendering a definitive diagnosis of carcinoma. There is a bulkiness to the epithelial proliferation: in essence, the epithelial compartment, rather than the surface hyperkeratosis, accounts for the lesion’s thickness (Fig. 2c and e). Keratosis overall is not as pronounced and orthokeratosis is not prominent in this category (Fig. 2c). The epithelium shows bulbous rete pegs that sometimes coalesce to appear confluent, and artifactual separations may be noted between the epithelium and superficial lamina propria (Fig. 2c and e). An inflammatory infiltrate is often seen at the advancing epithelial front, but without destruction of the epithelial-stromal interface (Fig. 2c and e). The degree of cytologic atypia may be modest, yet architectural disorder is readily identified and it is the architectural abnormalities that overshadow the cytologic findings. The specific sites of greatest concern include the gingiva, especially when there is a thickened "ring around the collar" effect clinically, followed by the palate, floor of mouth, buccal mucosa, and tongue.
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The relationship between contested illnesses and psychiatric
Posted June 8, 2019 | 📄 Reviewed by Devon Frye
A friend recently visited his doctor because of a bad cough that had lasted a few weeks. He didn't otherwise feel sick and worried he might have lung cancer or some other life-threatening disease.
When all the test results were in, his doctor happily said, "I can't find anything at all wrong with you. Maybe just allergies. Nothing to worry about."
The friend was ecstatic to hear this news, even though it meant he had no further information about what was causing his cough or any treatment for it. To know he didn't have cancer was enough to make him happy.
The above scenario is more common than we sometimes think. Often, medical science, despite all the incredible things it can now do, cannot find any explanation for symptoms that we have and we have to accept vague suggestions for the cause of our problems, like too much stress or allergies.
For people with what are called "contested illnesses," however, that uncertainty can become unbearable. As months and months of pain and suffering persist unabated, the need to find answers mounts. Those answers, many insist, should not be "there is nothing wrong with you" or "it's just depression."
# Contested Illnesses Become Contentious
Contested illnesses include conditions like chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS, also called myalgic encephalomyelitis or ME), fibromyalgia, multiple chemical sensitivities, and chronic Lyme disease. According to David Scales, an internist, sociologist, and Critica Chief Medical Officer, "Contested illnesses have uncertain causes, unclear treatments, and disputed medical, legal and cultural definitions."
These conditions are called "contested" because some people, including physicians and scientists, dispute their existence. This has led to the formation of patient advocacy organizations like Solve ME/CFS, the National Fibromyalgia and Chronic Pain Association, and the International Lyme and Associated Disease Society. Each of these organizations provides information about their respective illnesses, lobby for increased research funding, and advocate for acceptance of the illnesses as distinct biological entities.
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# Simple cuboidal epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium is a type of epithelium that consists of a single layer of cuboidal (cube-like) cells which have large, spherical and central nuclei.
Simple cuboidal epithelium is found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the walls of the renal tubules, parts of the eye and thyroid, and in salivary glands.
On these surfaces, the cells perform secretion and filtration.
# Location
Simple cuboidal cells are also found in renal tubules of nephrons, glandular ducts, and thyroid follicles. Simple cuboidal cells are found in single rows with their spherical nuclei in the center of the cells and are directly attached to the basal surface. Simple ciliated cuboidal cells are also present in the respiratory bronchioles. Germinal cuboidal epithelial lines the ovaries and seminiferous tubules of testes. They undergo meiosis to form gametes.
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Simple cuboidal epithelium in the pig kidney. The surfaces of the large and small collecting ducts (a and b), the circular structures, are surrounded by the simple cuboidal epithelium.
# Functions
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Section of the sheep thyroid gland, with simple cuboidal epithelium (labelled) surrounding thyroid follicles.
These cells provide protection and may be active (pumping material in or out of the lumen) or passive, depending on the location and cellular specialization.
Simple cuboidal epithelium commonly differentiates to form the secretory and duct portions of glands. They also constitute the germinal epithelium, which covers the ovary (but does not contribute to ovum production) and the internal walls of the seminiferous tubules in the male testes. These cells offer some protection and function in filtration and secretion.
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Home → Medical Tests → Pulse Oximetry
# Pulse Oximetry
# What is pulse oximetry?
Pulse oximetry is a test that uses a small, clip-like device called a pulse oximeter (Pulse Ox) to measure oxygen levels in your blood. When you breathe, your lungs take in oxygen and send it into your bloodstream. This oxygen-rich blood is carried by your red blood cells into your heart, which pumps it to the rest of your body.
But if a health condition causes your blood oxygen level (oxygen saturation) to get too low (a condition called hypoxemia), it can make it hard for your body to work properly. The longer your blood oxygen level stays low, the higher the risk is of damage to your tissues and organs.
Pulse oximetry is a painless and quick way to find out if your oxygen level is too low. Quick treatment of low blood oxygen may help you avoid serious complications.
Other names: pulse ox, oxygen saturation monitor, finger pulse oximeter
# What is it used for?
Pulse oximetry is used to check your blood oxygen level. The test may be done in your health care provider's office, a clinic, a hospital, or even your home. An at-home pulse oximeter may be helpful if you have a serious and/or chronic lung disease.
# Why do I need pulse oximetry?
Your provider may give you a pulse-oximetry test as part of a routine checkup. You may also get the test if you:
- Have a condition that affects your lung function. These can include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, heart failure, asthma, and COVID-19.
- Are taking medicine to treat lung disease. The test can show how well the medicine is working.
- Are having surgery. Your blood oxygen level may be checked before, during, and after your procedure.
- Have sleep apnea. This is a disorder that causes you to repeatedly stop breathing during sleep.
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First, the flow of electrons in a circuit is as follows: within the power source, electrons flow from the positive terminal to the negative terminal; outside the power source, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. Since the power source for the electrolytic cell is external, electrons depart from the negative terminal of the power source, first reaching the cathode, then the anode, and finally returning to the positive terminal of the power source. The galvanic cell functions as the power source.
Within the cell, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode. Note: There is no actual transfer of electrons in the solution. Charge transfer is primarily achieved through the movement of positively and negatively charged ions.
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Glossary of botanical terms
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Viburnum abscission
rotate
circular and flattened; for example a corolla with a very short tube and spreading lobes (for instance some Solanaceae).
ruderal
a plant that colonises or occupies disturbed waste ground. See also weed.
rudiment
In the structure of a plant, an item that is at best hardly functional, either because it is immature and has not yet completed its development (such as a leaf still incompletely formed inside a bud), or because its role in the organism's morphology cannot be completed and therefore is futile (such as the leaf rudiment at the tip of a phyllode, that will be shed while immature, because the leaf function will be taken over by the phyllode). Compare cataphyll and vestige.
rudimentary
Being of the nature of a rudiment; at most barely functional because incompletely developed; begun, but far from completed, either temporarily or permanently. Compare vestigial.
rugose
Wrinkled, either covered with wrinkles, or crumpled like a wrinkled leaf, either as a stiffening structure, or in response to disease or insect damage.
rugulose
Finely wrinkled.
ruminate
(usually applied to endosperm) Irregularly grooved or ridged; appearing chewed, e.g. the endosperm in certain members of Myristicaceae.
runcinate
Sharply pinnatifid or cleft, with the segments directed downward.
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# Recovery and follow-up
Postoperatively, the patient was placed in a sling to provide additional security to the arm, prevent further traction neuropraxia, and protect the construct. He was instructed to avoid passive motion of the right shoulder but was approved to perform passive range of motion (ROM) of the elbow and wrist with formal physical therapy. The patient discharged to a post-acute rehab facility on post-injury day 14. A dedicated brachial plexus magnetic resonance imaging obtained prior to discharge showed no evidence of nerve root avulsion. Postoperative radiographs at 6 weeks and at clinic follow-ups thereafter showed stable implants with no signs of loss of fixation or failure. The patient had no incisional complications and pulses were 2+ with good limb perfusion. The patient was referred to an upper extremity specialist with a brachial plexus focus on an outpatient basis where neurologic function continues to be assessed for possible brachial plexus exploration. Electromyography was performed two months following the injury, which corroborated a right pan-brachial plexopathy. He has been gradually allowed to increase use of his right arm as tolerated but has not recovered any neurologic function as shown by continued presence of a flail right upper extremity. Patient had complaints of neuropathic pain throughout the right extremity but has not regained sensation. Postoperative imaging at 8 months showed no signs of implant failure despite nearly complete inferior glenohumeral joint subluxation due to muscle paralysis. He has developed slight contractures throughout the upper extremity but has maintained normal vascular function.
8-month postoperative AP radiograph of right shoulder. The CC and SC joints remain well aligned and the clavicle fracture has united with no loss of reduction at any location when compared to initial postoperative radiographs. There are no signs of implant failure despite the stress on the construct by a flail limb as evidenced by chronic glenohumeral subluxation due to no muscle recovery. AP, anteroposterior; CC, coracoclavicular; SC, sternoclavicular.
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Katsushika Hokusai created prints using ukiyo-e woodblock techniques for mass production to reach a wide audience. This commercial art form, driven by publishers, involved a team of craftsmen who created numerous copies of artworks like "The Great Wave" and the "Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji" series. These affordable prints served as popular souvenirs for tourists and locals, including pilgrimages to Mount Fuji, establishing landscapes as a significant genre within ukiyo-e.
The Ukiyo-e System
Commercial Enterprise:
Ukiyo-e (meaning "pictures of the floating world") was a business, and Hokusai's prints were produced for the mass market.
Publisher-Driven Production:
Publishers commissioned artists, and their goal was efficiency and profitability.
Team of Skilled Artisans:
The creation of prints involved a large team, including:
The artist (Hokusai) for the original drawings.
Calligraphers for any text.
Block cutters for carving the woodblocks.
Printers who applied ink and pressed paper onto the blocks.
Collators and binders for assembly.
Mass Production for a Wide Audience
High-Volume Output:
Woodblock prints were produced in large quantities; for example, "The Great Wave" was reissued in thousands of impressions over many years.
Affordable Souvenirs:
The prints served as inexpensive souvenirs for the growing number of tourists and ordinary townspeople, especially those traveling to see Mount Fuji.
Changing Standards:
As print runs continued, especially in later editions, publishers and printers might reduce the application of color, use less skilled labor, or omit color blocks to lower costs and maintain profitability.
Hokusai's Contribution to Mass Appeal
Established Landscape Genre:
The success of the "Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji" series, which included "The Great Wave," helped establish landscape prints as a popular genre within ukiyo-e.
Accessible Art:
Through the commercial printing process, Hokusai's art became accessible to a broad audience, not just the wealthy elite. This allowed his unique artistic style to be widely appreciated and replicated for years after his death.
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# Male figures are rare
Tlatilco artists rarely depicted males, but when they did the males were often wearing costumes and even masks. Masks were very rare on female figures; most female figures stress hairstyle and/or body paint. Thus the male figures seem to be valued more for their ritual roles as priests or other religious specialists, while the religious role of the females is less clear but was very likely present.
# How they were found
In the first half of the 20th century, a great number of graves were found by brick-makers mining clay in the area. These brick-makers would often sell the objects—many of them figurines—that came out of these graves to interest collectors. Later archaeologists were able to dig a number of complete burials, and they too found a wealth of objects buried with the dead. The objects that were found in
largest quantities—and that enthralled many collectors and scholars of ancient Mexico—were the ceramic figurines.
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Tlatilco figurine of a woman with a dog, c. 1200–600 B.C.E. (Tlatilco), ceramic (National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City; photo: Steven Zucker. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Unlike some later Mexican figurines, those of Tlatilco were made exclusively by hand, without relying on molds. It is important to think, then, about the consistent mastery shown by the artists of many of these figurines. The main forms were created through pinching the clay and then shaping it by hand, while some of the details were created by a sharp instrument cutting linear motifs onto the wet clay. The forms of the body were depicted in a specific proportion that, while non-naturalistic, was striking and effective. The artist was given a very small space (most figures are less than 15 cm high) in which to create elaborate hairstyles. Even for today's viewer, the details in this area are endlessly fascinating. The pieces have a nice finish, and the paint that must indicate body decoration was firmly applied (when it is preserved, as in the two-headed figure above). Many scholars doubt that there were already full-time artists in such farming villages, but it is certain that the skills necessary to function as an artist in the tradition were passed down and mastered over generations.
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# Bonding and dipole moment
Carbon monoxide has a computed fractional bond order of 2.6, indicating that the "third" bond is important but constitutes somewhat less than a full bond. Thus, in valence bond terms, $\overline{\mathrm{C}} \equiv \mathrm{O}^{+}$ is the most important structure, while :C=O is non-octet, but has a neutral formal charge on each atom and represents the second most important resonance contributor. Because of the lone pair and divalent of carbon in this resonance structure, carbon monoxide is often considered to be an extraordinarily stabilized
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The most important resonance form of carbon monoxide is $^{-\mathrm{C}}\equiv\mathrm{O}^{+}$. An important minor resonance contributor is the non-octet carbenic structure :$\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$.
carbene. Isocyanides are compounds in which the O is replaced by an NR (R = alkyl or aryl) group and have a similar bonding scheme.
If carbon monoxide acts as a ligand, the polarity of the dipole may reverse with a net negative charge on the oxygen end, depending on the structure of the coordination complex. See also the section "Coordination chemistry" below.
# Bond polarity and oxidation state
Theoretical and experimental studies show that, despite the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the dipole moment points from the more-negative carbon end to the more-positive oxygen end. The three bonds are in fact polar covalent bonds that are strongly polarized. The calculated polarization toward the oxygen atom is 71% for the σ-bond and 77% for both π-bonds.
The oxidation state of carbon in carbon monoxide is +2 in each of these structures. It is calculated by counting all the bonding electrons as belonging to the more electronegative oxygen. Only the two non-bonding electrons on carbon are assigned to carbon. In this count, carbon then has only two valence electrons in the molecule compared to four in the free atom.
# Occurrence
Carbon monoxide occurs in many environments, usually in trace levels. Photochemical degradation of plant matter, for example, generates an estimated 60 million tons/year. Typical concentrations in parts per million are as follows:
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concentrations of tropospheric carbon monoxide at an altitude of about 12,000 feet. Data were collected by the MOPITT (Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere) sensor on NASA's Terra satellite.
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# Apulu of Veii
The Apulu of Veii is a prime example of Etruscan sculpture during the Archaic period. Apulu, the Etruscan equivalent of Apollo, is a slightly larger than life-size terra cotta akroteria figure in the Portonaccio Temple at Veii, an Etruscan city just north of Rome.
The figure was part of a group of akroteria that stood on the ridgepole of the temple and depicted the myth of Heracles and the Ceryneian hind. The figure of Apulu confronts the hero, Heracles, who is attempting to capture a deer sacred to Apulu's sister, Artumes (Artemis). Apulu is the most intact surviving statue of the akroteria figures from this temple.
The figure of Apulu has several Greek characteristics. The face is similar to the faces of Archaic Greek kouroi figures. The face is simply carved and an archaic smile provides a notion of emotion and realism. The hair of Apulu is stylized and falls across his shoulders and down his neck and back in stylized, geometric twists that seem to represent braids. The figure, like Greek figures, was painted in bright colors, and the edge of his toga appears to be lined in blue.
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Figure 5-5: The statue of Apulu by Ptyx is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
Unlike Archaic Greek statues and kouroi, the figure of Apulu is full of movement and presents the viewer with an entirely different aesthetic from the Greek style. The figure of Apulu is dynamic and flexible. He strides forward with an arm stretched out. He leans on his front foot, and his back foot is slightly raised.
The body is more faithfully modeled (comparable to later Greek kouroi), and instead of being nude, he wears a toga that is draped over one shoulder. The garment's folds are patterned and stylized but cling to the body, allowing the viewer to clearly distinguish the god's chest and thigh muscles. While the Etruscan artist applied an Archaic smile to Apulu, the figure's lips are full and his head is more egg-shaped than round—both characteristics of Etruscan art and sculpture.
# The Sarcophagus of the Spouses
A late sixth century sarcophagus excavated from a tomb in Cerveteri is a terra cotta sarcophagus that depicts a couple reclining together on a dining couch. The sarcophagus displays not only the Etruscan Archaic style but also Etruscan skill in working with terra cotta.
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# Most read
Extreme heat is driving a 'staggering' decline in tropical birds
Global plastics treaty talks stall as deadline approaches
A Bubble Barrier is made by placing a perforated tube diagonally on the river bed, which creates an upward current directing the plastics to the surface and guiding them into a catchment system.
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The diagonal flow steers plastic into a catchment system. - The Great Bubble Barrier
It catches plastics bigger than 1mm, but is soft enough to enable migrating fish to pass through, and in fact increases the amount of oxygen in the water, further benefiting the ecosystem.
The first Bubble Barrier was installed in Amsterdam's Westerdok canal, which flows into the river I.J. in 2019.
The Great Bubble Barrier and project partner Ciimar are currently assessing several locations in Porto and will announce their choice by the end of the year.
Next, the bubblers plan to take their technology to Asia, where 8 out of 10 of the world's most polluted rivers are located.
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The Prophet Isaiah is one of the seven Old Testament prophets painted by the Italian High Renaissance master Michelangelo (c. 1511) on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. The Sistine Chapel is in Vatican Palace, in the Vatican City. Elements of this fresco have inspired various artists, including Caravaggio and Norman Rockwell in his famous Rosie the Riveter illustration.
This particular fresco figure is painted fourth on the right from the side of the High Altar. Michelangelo's imagining bursts with movement, as Isaiah's cloak swirls around him. The colors in the portrayal – especially after the restoration – strike us as cool and luminous. The figure holds a distinctive blue book to his side, perhaps a depiction of the biblical Book of Isaiah.
This painting has been held in particularly high regard by critics. Vasari said of it: "Anyone who studies this figure, copied so faithfully from nature, the true mother of the art of painting, will find a beautifully composed work capable of teaching in full measure all the precepts to be followed by a good painter". If compared to Raphael's imagining of the same figure, Michelangelo's portrayal seems far more fluid and less muscular, as well as brighter in color.
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# Function
The fibularis longus, together with the fibularis brevis and the tibialis posterior, extend the foot downward away from the body at the ankle (plantar flexion). It opposes the tibialis anterior and the fibularis tertius, which pull the foot upward toward the body (dorsiflexion).
The fibularis longus also tilts the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion). Because of the angle at which it crosses the sole of the foot, it plays an important role in maintaining the transverse arch of the foot.
Together, the fibularis muscles help to steady the leg upon the foot, especially in standing on one leg.
# Nomenclature and etymology
Terminologia Anatomica designates "fibularis" as the preferred word over "peroneus".
The word "peroneus" comes from the Greek word "perone," meaning pin of a brooch or a buckle. In medical terminology, the word refers to being of or relating to the fibula or to the outer portion of the leg.
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Lateral aspect of right leg
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Muscles of leg (lateral view, deep dissection)
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